ld
and the H8/300ld
and the Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 families
ld
and the ARM familyld
and HPPA 32-bit ELF Supportld
and the Motorola 68K familyld
and the MIPS familyld
and MMIXld
and MSP430ld
and NDS32ld
and the Altera Nios IIld
and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Supportld
and PowerPC64 64-bit ELF Supportld
and S/390 ELF Supportld
and SPU ELF Supportld
’s Support for Various TI COFF Versionsld
and WIN32 (cygwin/mingw)ld
and Xtensa ProcessorsThis file documents the GNU linker ld (GNU Binutils) version 2.36.50.
This document is distributed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License version 1.3. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
• Overview | Overview | |
• Invocation | Invocation | |
• Scripts | Linker Scripts | |
• Plugins | Linker Plugins | |
• Machine Dependent | Machine Dependent Features | |
• BFD | BFD | |
• Reporting Bugs | Reporting Bugs | |
• MRI | MRI Compatible Script Files | |
• GNU Free Documentation License | GNU Free Documentation License | |
• LD Index | LD Index |
Next: Invocation, Previous: Top, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
ld
combines a number of object and archive files, relocates
their data and ties up symbol references. Usually the last step in
compiling a program is to run ld
.
ld
accepts Linker Command Language files written in
a superset of AT&T’s Link Editor Command Language syntax,
to provide explicit and total control over the linking process.
This version of ld
uses the general purpose BFD libraries
to operate on object files. This allows ld
to read, combine, and
write object files in many different formats—for example, COFF or
a.out
. Different formats may be linked together to produce any
available kind of object file. See BFD, for more information.
Aside from its flexibility, the GNU linker is more helpful than other
linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon
execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible,
ld
continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors
(or, in some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error).
The GNU linker ld
is meant to cover a broad range of situations,
and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result,
you have many choices to control its behavior.
• Options | Command-line Options | |
• Environment | Environment Variables |
Next: Environment, Up: Invocation [Contents][Index]
The linker supports a plethora of command-line options, but in actual
practice few of them are used in any particular context.
For instance, a frequent use of ld
is to link standard Unix
object files on a standard, supported Unix system. On such a system, to
link a file hello.o
:
ld -o output /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc
This tells ld
to produce a file called output as the
result of linking the file /lib/crt0.o
with hello.o
and
the library libc.a
, which will come from the standard search
directories. (See the discussion of the ‘-l’ option below.)
Some of the command-line options to ld
may be specified at any
point in the command line. However, options which refer to files, such
as ‘-l’ or ‘-T’, cause the file to be read at the point at
which the option appears in the command line, relative to the object
files and other file options. Repeating non-file options with a
different argument will either have no further effect, or override prior
occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of that
option. Options which may be meaningfully specified more than once are
noted in the descriptions below.
Non-option arguments are object files or archives which are to be linked together. They may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line options, except that an object file argument may not be placed between an option and its argument.
Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but you can specify other forms of binary input files using ‘-l’, ‘-R’, and the script command language. If no binary input files at all are specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues the message ‘No input files’.
If the linker cannot recognize the format of an object file, it will
assume that it is a linker script. A script specified in this way
augments the main linker script used for the link (either the default
linker script or the one specified by using ‘-T’). This feature
permits the linker to link against a file which appears to be an object
or an archive, but actually merely defines some symbol values, or uses
INPUT
or GROUP
to load other objects. Specifying a
script in this way merely augments the main linker script, with the
extra commands placed after the main script; use the ‘-T’ option
to replace the default linker script entirely, but note the effect of
the INSERT
command. See Scripts.
For options whose names are a single letter, option arguments must either follow the option letter without intervening whitespace, or be given as separate arguments immediately following the option that requires them.
For options whose names are multiple letters, either one dash or two can precede the option name; for example, ‘-trace-symbol’ and ‘--trace-symbol’ are equivalent. Note—there is one exception to this rule. Multiple letter options that start with a lower case ’o’ can only be preceded by two dashes. This is to reduce confusion with the ‘-o’ option. So for example ‘-omagic’ sets the output file name to ‘magic’ whereas ‘--omagic’ sets the NMAGIC flag on the output.
Arguments to multiple-letter options must either be separated from the option name by an equals sign, or be given as separate arguments immediately following the option that requires them. For example, ‘--trace-symbol foo’ and ‘--trace-symbol=foo’ are equivalent. Unique abbreviations of the names of multiple-letter options are accepted.
Note—if the linker is being invoked indirectly, via a compiler driver (e.g. ‘gcc’) then all the linker command-line options should be prefixed by ‘-Wl,’ (or whatever is appropriate for the particular compiler driver) like this:
gcc -Wl,--start-group foo.o bar.o -Wl,--end-group
This is important, because otherwise the compiler driver program may silently drop the linker options, resulting in a bad link. Confusion may also arise when passing options that require values through a driver, as the use of a space between option and argument acts as a separator, and causes the driver to pass only the option to the linker and the argument to the compiler. In this case, it is simplest to use the joined forms of both single- and multiple-letter options, such as:
gcc foo.o bar.o -Wl,-eENTRY -Wl,-Map=a.map
Here is a table of the generic command-line switches accepted by the GNU linker:
@file
Read command-line options from file. The options read are inserted in place of the original @file option. If file does not exist, or cannot be read, then the option will be treated literally, and not removed.
Options in file are separated by whitespace. A whitespace character may be included in an option by surrounding the entire option in either single or double quotes. Any character (including a backslash) may be included by prefixing the character to be included with a backslash. The file may itself contain additional @file options; any such options will be processed recursively.
-a keyword
This option is supported for HP/UX compatibility. The keyword argument must be one of the strings ‘archive’, ‘shared’, or ‘default’. ‘-aarchive’ is functionally equivalent to ‘-Bstatic’, and the other two keywords are functionally equivalent to ‘-Bdynamic’. This option may be used any number of times.
--audit AUDITLIB
Adds AUDITLIB to the DT_AUDIT
entry of the dynamic section.
AUDITLIB is not checked for existence, nor will it use the DT_SONAME
specified in the library. If specified multiple times DT_AUDIT
will contain a colon separated list of audit interfaces to use. If the linker
finds an object with an audit entry while searching for shared libraries,
it will add a corresponding DT_DEPAUDIT
entry in the output file.
This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms supporting the rtld-audit
interface.
-b input-format
--format=input-format
ld
may be configured to support more than one kind of object
file. If your ld
is configured this way, you can use the
‘-b’ option to specify the binary format for input object files
that follow this option on the command line. Even when ld
is
configured to support alternative object formats, you don’t usually need
to specify this, as ld
should be configured to expect as a
default input format the most usual format on each machine.
input-format is a text string, the name of a particular format
supported by the BFD libraries. (You can list the available binary
formats with ‘objdump -i’.)
See BFD.
You may want to use this option if you are linking files with an unusual binary format. You can also use ‘-b’ to switch formats explicitly (when linking object files of different formats), by including ‘-b input-format’ before each group of object files in a particular format.
The default format is taken from the environment variable
GNUTARGET
.
See Environment.
You can also define the input format from a script, using the command
TARGET
;
see Format Commands.
-c MRI-commandfile
--mri-script=MRI-commandfile
For compatibility with linkers produced by MRI, ld
accepts script
files written in an alternate, restricted command language, described in
MRI Compatible Script Files.
Introduce MRI script files with
the option ‘-c’; use the ‘-T’ option to run linker
scripts written in the general-purpose ld
scripting language.
If MRI-cmdfile does not exist, ld
looks for it in the directories
specified by any ‘-L’ options.
-d
-dc
-dp
These three options are equivalent; multiple forms are supported for
compatibility with other linkers. They assign space to common symbols
even if a relocatable output file is specified (with ‘-r’). The
script command FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION
has the same effect.
See Miscellaneous Commands.
--depaudit AUDITLIB
-P AUDITLIB
Adds AUDITLIB to the DT_DEPAUDIT
entry of the dynamic section.
AUDITLIB is not checked for existence, nor will it use the DT_SONAME
specified in the library. If specified multiple times DT_DEPAUDIT
will contain a colon separated list of audit interfaces to use. This
option is only meaningful on ELF platforms supporting the rtld-audit interface.
The -P option is provided for Solaris compatibility.
--enable-non-contiguous-regions
This option avoids generating an error if an input section does not fit a matching output section. The linker tries to allocate the input section to subseque nt matching output sections, and generates an error only if no output section is large enough. This is useful when several non-contiguous memory regions are available and the input section does not require a particular one. The order in which input sections are evaluated does not change, for instance:
MEMORY { MEM1 (rwx) : ORIGIN : 0x1000, LENGTH = 0x14 MEM2 (rwx) : ORIGIN : 0x1000, LENGTH = 0x40 MEM3 (rwx) : ORIGIN : 0x2000, LENGTH = 0x40 } SECTIONS { mem1 : { *(.data.*); } > MEM1 mem2 : { *(.data.*); } > MEM2 mem3 : { *(.data.*); } > MEM2 } with input sections: .data.1: size 8 .data.2: size 0x10 .data.3: size 4 results in .data.1 affected to mem1, and .data.2 and .data.3 affected to mem2, even though .data.3 would fit in mem3.
This option is incompatible with INSERT statements because it changes the way input sections are mapped to output sections.
--enable-non-contiguous-regions-warnings
This option enables warnings when
--enable-non-contiguous-regions
allows possibly unexpected
matches in sections mapping, potentially leading to silently
discarding a section instead of failing because it does not fit any
output region.
-e entry
--entry=entry
Use entry as the explicit symbol for beginning execution of your program, rather than the default entry point. If there is no symbol named entry, the linker will try to parse entry as a number, and use that as the entry address (the number will be interpreted in base 10; you may use a leading ‘0x’ for base 16, or a leading ‘0’ for base 8). See Entry Point, for a discussion of defaults and other ways of specifying the entry point.
--exclude-libs lib,lib,...
Specifies a list of archive libraries from which symbols should not be automatically
exported. The library names may be delimited by commas or colons. Specifying
--exclude-libs ALL
excludes symbols in all archive libraries from
automatic export. This option is available only for the i386 PE targeted
port of the linker and for ELF targeted ports. For i386 PE, symbols
explicitly listed in a .def file are still exported, regardless of this
option. For ELF targeted ports, symbols affected by this option will
be treated as hidden.
--exclude-modules-for-implib module,module,...
Specifies a list of object files or archive members, from which symbols
should not be automatically exported, but which should be copied wholesale
into the import library being generated during the link. The module names
may be delimited by commas or colons, and must match exactly the filenames
used by ld
to open the files; for archive members, this is simply
the member name, but for object files the name listed must include and
match precisely any path used to specify the input file on the linker’s
command-line. This option is available only for the i386 PE targeted port
of the linker. Symbols explicitly listed in a .def file are still exported,
regardless of this option.
-E
--export-dynamic
--no-export-dynamic
When creating a dynamically linked executable, using the -E option or the --export-dynamic option causes the linker to add all symbols to the dynamic symbol table. The dynamic symbol table is the set of symbols which are visible from dynamic objects at run time.
If you do not use either of these options (or use the --no-export-dynamic option to restore the default behavior), the dynamic symbol table will normally contain only those symbols which are referenced by some dynamic object mentioned in the link.
If you use dlopen
to load a dynamic object which needs to refer
back to the symbols defined by the program, rather than some other
dynamic object, then you will probably need to use this option when
linking the program itself.
You can also use the dynamic list to control what symbols should be added to the dynamic symbol table if the output format supports it. See the description of ‘--dynamic-list’.
Note that this option is specific to ELF targeted ports. PE targets support a similar function to export all symbols from a DLL or EXE; see the description of ‘--export-all-symbols’ below.
--export-dynamic-symbol=glob
When creating a dynamically linked executable, symbols matching glob will be added to the dynamic symbol table. When creating a shared library, references to symbols matching glob will not be bound to the definitions within the shared library. This option is a no-op when creating a shared library and ‘-Bsymbolic’ or ‘--dynamic-list’ are not specified. This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
--export-dynamic-symbol-list=file
Specify a ‘--export-dynamic-symbol’ for each pattern in the file. The format of the file is the same as the version node without scope and node name. See VERSION for more information.
-EB
Link big-endian objects. This affects the default output format.
-EL
Link little-endian objects. This affects the default output format.
-f name
--auxiliary=name
When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_AUXILIARY field to the specified name. This tells the dynamic linker that the symbol table of the shared object should be used as an auxiliary filter on the symbol table of the shared object name.
If you later link a program against this filter object, then, when you run the program, the dynamic linker will see the DT_AUXILIARY field. If the dynamic linker resolves any symbols from the filter object, it will first check whether there is a definition in the shared object name. If there is one, it will be used instead of the definition in the filter object. The shared object name need not exist. Thus the shared object name may be used to provide an alternative implementation of certain functions, perhaps for debugging or for machine-specific performance.
This option may be specified more than once. The DT_AUXILIARY entries will be created in the order in which they appear on the command line.
-F name
--filter=name
When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_FILTER field to the specified name. This tells the dynamic linker that the symbol table of the shared object which is being created should be used as a filter on the symbol table of the shared object name.
If you later link a program against this filter object, then, when you run the program, the dynamic linker will see the DT_FILTER field. The dynamic linker will resolve symbols according to the symbol table of the filter object as usual, but it will actually link to the definitions found in the shared object name. Thus the filter object can be used to select a subset of the symbols provided by the object name.
Some older linkers used the -F option throughout a compilation
toolchain for specifying object-file format for both input and output
object files.
The GNU linker uses other mechanisms for this purpose: the
-b, --format, --oformat options, the
TARGET
command in linker scripts, and the GNUTARGET
environment variable.
The GNU linker will ignore the -F option when not
creating an ELF shared object.
-fini=name
When creating an ELF executable or shared object, call NAME when the
executable or shared object is unloaded, by setting DT_FINI to the
address of the function. By default, the linker uses _fini
as
the function to call.
-g
Ignored. Provided for compatibility with other tools.
-G value
--gpsize=value
Set the maximum size of objects to be optimized using the GP register to size. This is only meaningful for object file formats such as MIPS ELF that support putting large and small objects into different sections. This is ignored for other object file formats.
-h name
-soname=name
When creating an ELF shared object, set the internal DT_SONAME field to the specified name. When an executable is linked with a shared object which has a DT_SONAME field, then when the executable is run the dynamic linker will attempt to load the shared object specified by the DT_SONAME field rather than the using the file name given to the linker.
-i
Perform an incremental link (same as option ‘-r’).
-init=name
When creating an ELF executable or shared object, call NAME when the
executable or shared object is loaded, by setting DT_INIT to the address
of the function. By default, the linker uses _init
as the
function to call.
-l namespec
--library=namespec
Add the archive or object file specified by namespec to the
list of files to link. This option may be used any number of times.
If namespec is of the form :filename, ld
will search the library path for a file called filename, otherwise it
will search the library path for a file called libnamespec.a.
On systems which support shared libraries, ld
may also search for
files other than libnamespec.a. Specifically, on ELF
and SunOS systems, ld
will search a directory for a library
called libnamespec.so before searching for one called
libnamespec.a. (By convention, a .so
extension
indicates a shared library.) Note that this behavior does not apply
to :filename, which always specifies a file called
filename.
The linker will search an archive only once, at the location where it is specified on the command line. If the archive defines a symbol which was undefined in some object which appeared before the archive on the command line, the linker will include the appropriate file(s) from the archive. However, an undefined symbol in an object appearing later on the command line will not cause the linker to search the archive again.
See the -( option for a way to force the linker to search archives multiple times.
You may list the same archive multiple times on the command line.
This type of archive searching is standard for Unix linkers. However,
if you are using ld
on AIX, note that it is different from the
behaviour of the AIX linker.
-L searchdir
--library-path=searchdir
Add path searchdir to the list of paths that ld
will search
for archive libraries and ld
control scripts. You may use this
option any number of times. The directories are searched in the order
in which they are specified on the command line. Directories specified
on the command line are searched before the default directories. All
-L options apply to all -l options, regardless of the
order in which the options appear. -L options do not affect
how ld
searches for a linker script unless -T
option is specified.
If searchdir begins with =
or $SYSROOT
, then this
prefix will be replaced by the sysroot prefix, controlled by the
‘--sysroot’ option, or specified when the linker is configured.
The default set of paths searched (without being specified with
‘-L’) depends on which emulation mode ld
is using, and in
some cases also on how it was configured. See Environment.
The paths can also be specified in a link script with the
SEARCH_DIR
command. Directories specified this way are searched
at the point in which the linker script appears in the command line.
-m emulation
Emulate the emulation linker. You can list the available emulations with the ‘--verbose’ or ‘-V’ options.
If the ‘-m’ option is not used, the emulation is taken from the
LDEMULATION
environment variable, if that is defined.
Otherwise, the default emulation depends upon how the linker was configured.
-M
--print-map
Print a link map to the standard output. A link map provides information about the link, including the following:
Note - symbols whose values are computed by an expression which involves a reference to a previous value of the same symbol may not have correct result displayed in the link map. This is because the linker discards intermediate results and only retains the final value of an expression. Under such circumstances the linker will display the final value enclosed by square brackets. Thus for example a linker script containing:
foo = 1 foo = foo * 4 foo = foo + 8
will produce the following output in the link map if the -M option is used:
0x00000001 foo = 0x1 [0x0000000c] foo = (foo * 0x4) [0x0000000c] foo = (foo + 0x8)
See Expressions for more information about expressions in linker scripts.
When the linker merges input .note.gnu.property sections into one output .note.gnu.property section, some properties are removed or updated. These actions are reported in the link map. For example:
Removed property 0xc0000002 to merge foo.o (0x1) and bar.o (not found)
This indicates that property 0xc0000002 is removed from output when merging properties in foo.o, whose property 0xc0000002 value is 0x1, and bar.o, which doesn’t have property 0xc0000002.
Updated property 0xc0010001 (0x1) to merge foo.o (0x1) and bar.o (0x1)
This indicates that property 0xc0010001 value is updated to 0x1 in output when merging properties in foo.o, whose 0xc0010001 property value is 0x1, and bar.o, whose 0xc0010001 property value is 0x1.
--print-map-discarded
--no-print-map-discarded
Print (or do not print) the list of discarded and garbage collected sections in the link map. Enabled by default.
-n
--nmagic
Turn off page alignment of sections, and disable linking against shared
libraries. If the output format supports Unix style magic numbers,
mark the output as NMAGIC
.
-N
--omagic
Set the text and data sections to be readable and writable. Also, do
not page-align the data segment, and disable linking against shared
libraries. If the output format supports Unix style magic numbers,
mark the output as OMAGIC
. Note: Although a writable text section
is allowed for PE-COFF targets, it does not conform to the format
specification published by Microsoft.
--no-omagic
This option negates most of the effects of the -N option. It sets the text section to be read-only, and forces the data segment to be page-aligned. Note - this option does not enable linking against shared libraries. Use -Bdynamic for this.
-o output
--output=output
Use output as the name for the program produced by ld
; if this
option is not specified, the name a.out is used by default. The
script command OUTPUT
can also specify the output file name.
--dependency-file=depfile
Write a dependency file to depfile. This file contains a rule
suitable for make
describing the output file and all the input files
that were read to produce it. The output is similar to the compiler’s
output with ‘-M -MP’ (see Options
Controlling the Preprocessor in Using the GNU Compiler
Collection). Note that there is no option like the compiler’s ‘-MM’,
to exclude “system files” (which is not a well-specified concept in the
linker, unlike “system headers” in the compiler). So the output from
‘--dependency-file’ is always specific to the exact state of the
installation where it was produced, and should not be copied into
distributed makefiles without careful editing.
-O level
If level is a numeric values greater than zero ld
optimizes
the output. This might take significantly longer and therefore probably
should only be enabled for the final binary. At the moment this
option only affects ELF shared library generation. Future releases of
the linker may make more use of this option. Also currently there is
no difference in the linker’s behaviour for different non-zero values
of this option. Again this may change with future releases.
-plugin name
Involve a plugin in the linking process. The name parameter is the absolute filename of the plugin. Usually this parameter is automatically added by the complier, when using link time optimization, but users can also add their own plugins if they so wish.
Note that the location of the compiler originated plugins is different
from the place where the ar
, nm
and
ranlib
programs search for their plugins. In order for
those commands to make use of a compiler based plugin it must first be
copied into the ${libdir}/bfd-plugins directory. All gcc
based linker plugins are backward compatible, so it is sufficient to
just copy in the newest one.
--push-state
The --push-state allows one to preserve the current state of the flags which govern the input file handling so that they can all be restored with one corresponding --pop-state option.
The option which are covered are: -Bdynamic, -Bstatic, -dn, -dy, -call_shared, -non_shared, -static, -N, -n, --whole-archive, --no-whole-archive, -r, -Ur, --copy-dt-needed-entries, --no-copy-dt-needed-entries, --as-needed, --no-as-needed, and -a.
One target for this option are specifications for pkg-config. When used with the --libs option all possibly needed libraries are listed and then possibly linked with all the time. It is better to return something as follows:
-Wl,--push-state,--as-needed -libone -libtwo -Wl,--pop-state
--pop-state
Undoes the effect of –push-state, restores the previous values of the flags governing input file handling.
-q
--emit-relocs
Leave relocation sections and contents in fully linked executables. Post link analysis and optimization tools may need this information in order to perform correct modifications of executables. This results in larger executables.
This option is currently only supported on ELF platforms.
--force-dynamic
Force the output file to have dynamic sections. This option is specific to VxWorks targets.
-r
--relocatable
Generate relocatable output—i.e., generate an output file that can in
turn serve as input to ld
. This is often called partial
linking. As a side effect, in environments that support standard Unix
magic numbers, this option also sets the output file’s magic number to
OMAGIC
.
If this option is not specified, an absolute file is produced. When
linking C++ programs, this option will not resolve references to
constructors; to do that, use ‘-Ur’.
When an input file does not have the same format as the output file,
partial linking is only supported if that input file does not contain any
relocations. Different output formats can have further restrictions; for
example some a.out
-based formats do not support partial linking
with input files in other formats at all.
This option does the same thing as ‘-i’.
-R filename
--just-symbols=filename
Read symbol names and their addresses from filename, but do not relocate it or include it in the output. This allows your output file to refer symbolically to absolute locations of memory defined in other programs. You may use this option more than once.
For compatibility with other ELF linkers, if the -R option is followed by a directory name, rather than a file name, it is treated as the -rpath option.
-s
--strip-all
Omit all symbol information from the output file.
-S
--strip-debug
Omit debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the output file.
--strip-discarded
--no-strip-discarded
Omit (or do not omit) global symbols defined in discarded sections. Enabled by default.
-t
--trace
Print the names of the input files as ld
processes them. If
‘-t’ is given twice then members within archives are also printed.
‘-t’ output is useful to generate a list of all the object files
and scripts involved in linking, for example, when packaging files for
a linker bug report.
-T scriptfile
--script=scriptfile
Use scriptfile as the linker script. This script replaces
ld
’s default linker script (rather than adding to it), so
commandfile must specify everything necessary to describe the
output file. See Scripts. If scriptfile does not exist in
the current directory, ld
looks for it in the directories
specified by any preceding ‘-L’ options. Multiple ‘-T’
options accumulate.
-dT scriptfile
--default-script=scriptfile
Use scriptfile as the default linker script. See Scripts.
This option is similar to the --script option except that processing of the script is delayed until after the rest of the command line has been processed. This allows options placed after the --default-script option on the command line to affect the behaviour of the linker script, which can be important when the linker command line cannot be directly controlled by the user. (eg because the command line is being constructed by another tool, such as ‘gcc’).
-u symbol
--undefined=symbol
Force symbol to be entered in the output file as an undefined
symbol. Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of additional
modules from standard libraries. ‘-u’ may be repeated with
different option arguments to enter additional undefined symbols. This
option is equivalent to the EXTERN
linker script command.
If this option is being used to force additional modules to be pulled into the link, and if it is an error for the symbol to remain undefined, then the option --require-defined should be used instead.
--require-defined=symbol
Require that symbol is defined in the output file. This option
is the same as option --undefined except that if symbol
is not defined in the output file then the linker will issue an error
and exit. The same effect can be achieved in a linker script by using
EXTERN
, ASSERT
and DEFINED
together. This option
can be used multiple times to require additional symbols.
-Ur
For anything other than C++ programs, this option is equivalent to
‘-r’: it generates relocatable output—i.e., an output file that can in
turn serve as input to ld
. When linking C++ programs, ‘-Ur’
does resolve references to constructors, unlike ‘-r’.
It does not work to use ‘-Ur’ on files that were themselves linked
with ‘-Ur’; once the constructor table has been built, it cannot
be added to. Use ‘-Ur’ only for the last partial link, and
‘-r’ for the others.
--orphan-handling=MODE
Control how orphan sections are handled. An orphan section is one not specifically mentioned in a linker script. See Orphan Sections.
MODE can have any of the following values:
place
Orphan sections are placed into a suitable output section following the strategy described in Orphan Sections. The option ‘--unique’ also affects how sections are placed.
discard
All orphan sections are discarded, by placing them in the ‘/DISCARD/’ section (see Output Section Discarding).
warn
The linker will place the orphan section as for place
and also
issue a warning.
error
The linker will exit with an error if any orphan section is found.
The default if ‘--orphan-handling’ is not given is place
.
--unique[=SECTION]
Creates a separate output section for every input section matching SECTION, or if the optional wildcard SECTION argument is missing, for every orphan input section. An orphan section is one not specifically mentioned in a linker script. You may use this option multiple times on the command line; It prevents the normal merging of input sections with the same name, overriding output section assignments in a linker script.
-v
--version
-V
Display the version number for ld
. The -V option also
lists the supported emulations.
-x
--discard-all
Delete all local symbols.
-X
--discard-locals
Delete all temporary local symbols. (These symbols start with system-specific local label prefixes, typically ‘.L’ for ELF systems or ‘L’ for traditional a.out systems.)
-y symbol
--trace-symbol=symbol
Print the name of each linked file in which symbol appears. This option may be given any number of times. On many systems it is necessary to prepend an underscore.
This option is useful when you have an undefined symbol in your link but don’t know where the reference is coming from.
-Y path
Add path to the default library search path. This option exists for Solaris compatibility.
-z keyword
The recognized keywords are:
Always generate BND prefix in PLT entries. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
Specify the 1-byte NOP
padding when transforming indirect call
to a locally defined function, foo, via its GOT slot.
call-nop=prefix-addr generates 0x67 call foo
.
call-nop=suffix-nop generates call foo 0x90
.
call-nop=prefix-byte generates byte call foo
.
call-nop=suffix-byte generates call foo byte
.
Supported for i386 and x86_64.
Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_IBT and GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_SHSTK properties in input .note.gnu.property section. cet-report=none, which is the default, will make the linker not report missing properties in input files. cet-report=warning will make the linker issue a warning for missing properties in input files. cet-report=error will make the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files. Note that ibt will turn off the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_IBT property report and shstk will turn off the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_SHSTK property report. Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
Combine multiple dynamic relocation sections and sort to improve dynamic symbol lookup caching. Do not do this if ‘nocombreloc’.
Generate common symbols with STT_COMMON type during a relocatable link. Use STT_OBJECT type if ‘nocommon’.
Set the page size most commonly used to value. Memory image layout will be optimized to minimize memory pages if the system is using pages of this size.
Report unresolved symbol references from regular object files. This is done even if the linker is creating a non-symbolic shared library. This option is the inverse of ‘-z undefs’.
Make undefined weak symbols dynamic when building a dynamic object, if they are referenced from a regular object file and not forced local by symbol visibility or versioning. Do not make them dynamic if ‘nodynamic-undefined-weak’. If neither option is given, a target may default to either option being in force, or make some other selection of undefined weak symbols dynamic. Not all targets support these options.
Marks the object as requiring executable stack.
This option is only meaningful when building a shared object. It makes the symbols defined by this shared object available for symbol resolution of subsequently loaded libraries.
This option is only meaningful when building a dynamic executable.
This option marks the executable as requiring global auditing by
setting the DF_1_GLOBAUDIT
bit in the DT_FLAGS_1
dynamic
tag. Global auditing requires that any auditing library defined via
the --depaudit or -P command-line options be run for
all dynamic objects loaded by the application.
Generate Intel Indirect Branch Tracking (IBT) enabled PLT entries. Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_IBT in .note.gnu.property section to indicate compatibility with IBT. This also implies ibtplt. Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
This option is only meaningful when building a shared object. It marks the object so that its runtime initialization will occur before the runtime initialization of any other objects brought into the process at the same time. Similarly the runtime finalization of the object will occur after the runtime finalization of any other objects.
Specify that the dynamic loader should modify its symbol search order so that symbols in this shared library interpose all other shared libraries not so marked.
When generating a shared library or other dynamically loadable ELF
object mark it as one that should (by default) only ever be loaded once,
and only in the main namespace (when using dlmopen
). This is
primarily used to mark fundamental libraries such as libc, libpthread et
al which do not usually function correctly unless they are the sole instances
of themselves. This behaviour can be overridden by the dlmopen
caller
and does not apply to certain loading mechanisms (such as audit libraries).
Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U48 in .note.gnu.property section to indicate compatibility with Intel LAM_U48. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U57 in .note.gnu.property section to indicate compatibility with Intel LAM_U57. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U48 property in input .note.gnu.property section. lam-u48-report=none, which is the default, will make the linker not report missing properties in input files. lam-u48-report=warning will make the linker issue a warning for missing properties in input files. lam-u48-report=error will make the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U57 property in input .note.gnu.property section. lam-u57-report=none, which is the default, will make the linker not report missing properties in input files. lam-u57-report=warning will make the linker issue a warning for missing properties in input files. lam-u57-report=error will make the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
Specify how to report the missing GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U48 and GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_LAM_U57 properties in input .note.gnu.property section. lam-report=none, which is the default, will make the linker not report missing properties in input files. lam-report=warning will make the linker issue a warning for missing properties in input files. lam-report=error will make the linker issue an error for missing properties in input files. Supported for Linux/x86_64.
When generating an executable or shared library, mark it to tell the dynamic linker to defer function call resolution to the point when the function is called (lazy binding), rather than at load time. Lazy binding is the default.
Specify that the object’s filters be processed immediately at runtime.
Set the maximum memory page size supported to value.
Allow multiple definitions.
Disable linker generated .dynbss variables used in place of variables defined in shared libraries. May result in dynamic text relocations.
Specify that the dynamic loader search for dependencies of this object should ignore any default library search paths.
Specify that the object shouldn’t be unloaded at runtime.
Specify that the object is not available to dlopen
.
Specify that the object can not be dumped by dldump
.
Marks the object as not requiring executable stack.
Don’t treat protected data symbols as external when building a shared library. This option overrides the linker backend default. It can be used to work around incorrect relocations against protected data symbols generated by compiler. Updates on protected data symbols by another module aren’t visible to the resulting shared library. Supported for i386 and x86-64.
Disable relocation overflow check. This can be used to disable relocation overflow check if there will be no dynamic relocation overflow at run-time. Supported for x86_64.
When generating an executable or shared library, mark it to tell the dynamic linker to resolve all symbols when the program is started, or when the shared library is loaded by dlopen, instead of deferring function call resolution to the point when the function is first called.
Specify that the object requires ‘$ORIGIN’ handling in paths.
Create an ELF PT_GNU_RELRO
segment header in the object. This
specifies a memory segment that should be made read-only after
relocation, if supported. Specifying ‘common-page-size’ smaller
than the system page size will render this protection ineffective.
Don’t create an ELF PT_GNU_RELRO
segment if ‘norelro’.
Report dynamic relative relocations generated by linker. Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
Create separate code PT_LOAD
segment header in the object. This
specifies a memory segment that should contain only instructions and must
be in wholly disjoint pages from any other data. Don’t create separate
code PT_LOAD
segment if ‘noseparate-code’ is used.
Avoid duplicated local symbol names in the symbol string table. Append
".number
" to duplicated local symbol names if ‘unique-symbol’
is used. nounique-symbol is the default.
Generate GNU_PROPERTY_X86_FEATURE_1_SHSTK in .note.gnu.property section to indicate compatibility with Intel Shadow Stack. Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
Specify a stack size for an ELF PT_GNU_STACK
segment.
Specifying zero will override any default non-zero sized
PT_GNU_STACK
segment creation.
When ‘--gc-sections’ is in effect, a reference from a retained
section to __start_SECNAME
or __stop_SECNAME
causes all
input sections named SECNAME
to also be retained, if
SECNAME
is representable as a C identifier and either
__start_SECNAME
or __stop_SECNAME
is synthesized by the
linker. ‘-z start-stop-gc’ disables this effect, allowing
sections to be garbage collected as if the special synthesized symbols
were not defined. ‘-z start-stop-gc’ has no effect on a
definition of __start_SECNAME
or __stop_SECNAME
in an
object file or linker script. Such a definition will prevent the
linker providing a synthesized __start_SECNAME
or
__stop_SECNAME
respectively, and therefore the special
treatment by garbage collection for those references.
Specify the ELF symbol visibility for synthesized
__start_SECNAME
and __stop_SECNAME
symbols (see Input Section Example). value must be exactly ‘default’,
‘internal’, ‘hidden’, or ‘protected’. If no ‘-z
start-stop-visibility’ option is given, ‘protected’ is used for
compatibility with historical practice. However, it’s highly
recommended to use ‘-z start-stop-visibility=hidden’ in new
programs and shared libraries so that these symbols are not exported
between shared objects, which is not usually what’s intended.
Report an error if DT_TEXTREL is set, i.e., if the position-independent or shared object has dynamic relocations in read-only sections. Don’t report an error if ‘notext’ or ‘textoff’.
Do not report unresolved symbol references from regular object files, either when creating an executable, or when creating a shared library. This option is the inverse of ‘-z defs’.
Specify the x86-64 ISA level needed in .note.gnu.property section.
x86-64-baseline generates GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_BASELINE
.
x86-64-v2 generates GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_V2
.
x86-64-v3 generates GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_V3
.
x86-64-v4 generates GNU_PROPERTY_X86_ISA_1_V4
.
Supported for Linux/i386 and Linux/x86_64.
Other keywords are ignored for Solaris compatibility.
-( archives -)
--start-group archives --end-group
The archives should be a list of archive files. They may be either explicit file names, or ‘-l’ options.
The specified archives are searched repeatedly until no new undefined references are created. Normally, an archive is searched only once in the order that it is specified on the command line. If a symbol in that archive is needed to resolve an undefined symbol referred to by an object in an archive that appears later on the command line, the linker would not be able to resolve that reference. By grouping the archives, they will all be searched repeatedly until all possible references are resolved.
Using this option has a significant performance cost. It is best to use it only when there are unavoidable circular references between two or more archives.
--accept-unknown-input-arch
--no-accept-unknown-input-arch
Tells the linker to accept input files whose architecture cannot be recognised. The assumption is that the user knows what they are doing and deliberately wants to link in these unknown input files. This was the default behaviour of the linker, before release 2.14. The default behaviour from release 2.14 onwards is to reject such input files, and so the ‘--accept-unknown-input-arch’ option has been added to restore the old behaviour.
--as-needed
--no-as-needed
This option affects ELF DT_NEEDED tags for dynamic libraries mentioned on the command line after the --as-needed option. Normally the linker will add a DT_NEEDED tag for each dynamic library mentioned on the command line, regardless of whether the library is actually needed or not. --as-needed causes a DT_NEEDED tag to only be emitted for a library that at that point in the link satisfies a non-weak undefined symbol reference from a regular object file or, if the library is not found in the DT_NEEDED lists of other needed libraries, a non-weak undefined symbol reference from another needed dynamic library. Object files or libraries appearing on the command line after the library in question do not affect whether the library is seen as needed. This is similar to the rules for extraction of object files from archives. --no-as-needed restores the default behaviour.
Note: On Linux based systems the --as-needed option also has an affect on the behaviour of the --rpath and --rpath-link options. See the description of --rpath-link for more details.
--add-needed
--no-add-needed
These two options have been deprecated because of the similarity of their names to the --as-needed and --no-as-needed options. They have been replaced by --copy-dt-needed-entries and --no-copy-dt-needed-entries.
-assert keyword
This option is ignored for SunOS compatibility.
-Bdynamic
-dy
-call_shared
Link against dynamic libraries. This is only meaningful on platforms for which shared libraries are supported. This option is normally the default on such platforms. The different variants of this option are for compatibility with various systems. You may use this option multiple times on the command line: it affects library searching for -l options which follow it.
-Bgroup
Set the DF_1_GROUP
flag in the DT_FLAGS_1
entry in the dynamic
section. This causes the runtime linker to handle lookups in this
object and its dependencies to be performed only inside the group.
--unresolved-symbols=report-all is implied. This option is
only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
-Bstatic
-dn
-non_shared
-static
Do not link against shared libraries. This is only meaningful on platforms for which shared libraries are supported. The different variants of this option are for compatibility with various systems. You may use this option multiple times on the command line: it affects library searching for -l options which follow it. This option also implies --unresolved-symbols=report-all. This option can be used with -shared. Doing so means that a shared library is being created but that all of the library’s external references must be resolved by pulling in entries from static libraries.
-Bsymbolic
When creating a shared library, bind references to global symbols to the definition within the shared library, if any. Normally, it is possible for a program linked against a shared library to override the definition within the shared library. This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
-Bsymbolic-functions
When creating a shared library, bind references to global function symbols to the definition within the shared library, if any. This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
-Bno-symbolic
This option can cancel previously specified ‘-Bsymbolic’ and ‘-Bsymbolic-functions’.
--dynamic-list=dynamic-list-file
Specify the name of a dynamic list file to the linker. This is typically used when creating shared libraries to specify a list of global symbols whose references shouldn’t be bound to the definition within the shared library, or creating dynamically linked executables to specify a list of symbols which should be added to the symbol table in the executable. This option is only meaningful on ELF platforms which support shared libraries.
The format of the dynamic list is the same as the version node without scope and node name. See VERSION for more information.
--dynamic-list-data
Include all global data symbols to the dynamic list.
--dynamic-list-cpp-new
Provide the builtin dynamic list for C++ operator new and delete. It is mainly useful for building shared libstdc++.
--dynamic-list-cpp-typeinfo
Provide the builtin dynamic list for C++ runtime type identification.
--check-sections
--no-check-sections
Asks the linker not to check section addresses after they have been assigned to see if there are any overlaps. Normally the linker will perform this check, and if it finds any overlaps it will produce suitable error messages. The linker does know about, and does make allowances for sections in overlays. The default behaviour can be restored by using the command-line switch --check-sections. Section overlap is not usually checked for relocatable links. You can force checking in that case by using the --check-sections option.
--copy-dt-needed-entries
--no-copy-dt-needed-entries
This option affects the treatment of dynamic libraries referred to by DT_NEEDED tags inside ELF dynamic libraries mentioned on the command line. Normally the linker won’t add a DT_NEEDED tag to the output binary for each library mentioned in a DT_NEEDED tag in an input dynamic library. With --copy-dt-needed-entries specified on the command line however any dynamic libraries that follow it will have their DT_NEEDED entries added. The default behaviour can be restored with --no-copy-dt-needed-entries.
This option also has an effect on the resolution of symbols in dynamic libraries. With --copy-dt-needed-entries dynamic libraries mentioned on the command line will be recursively searched, following their DT_NEEDED tags to other libraries, in order to resolve symbols required by the output binary. With the default setting however the searching of dynamic libraries that follow it will stop with the dynamic library itself. No DT_NEEDED links will be traversed to resolve symbols.
--cref
Output a cross reference table. If a linker map file is being generated, the cross reference table is printed to the map file. Otherwise, it is printed on the standard output.
The format of the table is intentionally simple, so that it may be easily processed by a script if necessary. The symbols are printed out, sorted by name. For each symbol, a list of file names is given. If the symbol is defined, the first file listed is the location of the definition. If the symbol is defined as a common value then any files where this happens appear next. Finally any files that reference the symbol are listed.
--ctf-variables
--no-ctf-variables
The CTF debuginfo format supports a section which encodes the names and types of variables found in the program which do not appear in any symbol table. These variables clearly cannot be looked up by address by conventional debuggers, so the space used for their types and names is usually wasted: the types are usually small but the names are often not. --ctf-variables causes the generation of such a section. The default behaviour can be restored with --no-ctf-variables.
--ctf-share-types=method
Adjust the method used to share types between translation units in CTF.
Put all types that do not have ambiguous definitions into the shared dictionary, where debuggers can easily access them, even if they only occur in one translation unit. This is the default.
Put only types that occur in multiple translation units into the shared dictionary: types with only one definition go into per-translation-unit dictionaries. Types with ambiguous definitions in multiple translation units always go into per-translation-unit dictionaries. This tends to make the CTF larger, but may reduce the amount of CTF in the shared dictionary. For very large projects this may speed up opening the CTF and save memory in the CTF consumer at runtime.
--no-define-common
This option inhibits the assignment of addresses to common symbols.
The script command INHIBIT_COMMON_ALLOCATION
has the same effect.
See Miscellaneous Commands.
The ‘--no-define-common’ option allows decoupling the decision to assign addresses to Common symbols from the choice of the output file type; otherwise a non-Relocatable output type forces assigning addresses to Common symbols. Using ‘--no-define-common’ allows Common symbols that are referenced from a shared library to be assigned addresses only in the main program. This eliminates the unused duplicate space in the shared library, and also prevents any possible confusion over resolving to the wrong duplicate when there are many dynamic modules with specialized search paths for runtime symbol resolution.
--force-group-allocation
This option causes the linker to place section group members like
normal input sections, and to delete the section groups. This is the
default behaviour for a final link but this option can be used to
change the behaviour of a relocatable link (‘-r’). The script
command FORCE_GROUP_ALLOCATION
has the same
effect. See Miscellaneous Commands.
--defsym=symbol=expression
Create a global symbol in the output file, containing the absolute
address given by expression. You may use this option as many
times as necessary to define multiple symbols in the command line. A
limited form of arithmetic is supported for the expression in this
context: you may give a hexadecimal constant or the name of an existing
symbol, or use +
and -
to add or subtract hexadecimal
constants or symbols. If you need more elaborate expressions, consider
using the linker command language from a script (see Assignments).
Note: there should be no white space between symbol, the
equals sign (“=”), and expression.
The linker processes ‘--defsym’ arguments and ‘-T’ arguments in order, placing ‘--defsym’ before ‘-T’ will define the symbol before the linker script from ‘-T’ is processed, while placing ‘--defsym’ after ‘-T’ will define the symbol after the linker script has been processed. This difference has consequences for expressions within the linker script that use the ‘--defsym’ symbols, which order is correct will depend on what you are trying to achieve.
--demangle[=style]
--no-demangle
These options control whether to demangle symbol names in error messages and other output. When the linker is told to demangle, it tries to present symbol names in a readable fashion: it strips leading underscores if they are used by the object file format, and converts C++ mangled symbol names into user readable names. Different compilers have different mangling styles. The optional demangling style argument can be used to choose an appropriate demangling style for your compiler. The linker will demangle by default unless the environment variable ‘COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE’ is set. These options may be used to override the default.
-Ifile
--dynamic-linker=file
Set the name of the dynamic linker. This is only meaningful when generating dynamically linked ELF executables. The default dynamic linker is normally correct; don’t use this unless you know what you are doing.
--no-dynamic-linker
When producing an executable file, omit the request for a dynamic linker to be used at load-time. This is only meaningful for ELF executables that contain dynamic relocations, and usually requires entry point code that is capable of processing these relocations.
--embedded-relocs
This option is similar to the --emit-relocs option except that the relocs are stored in a target-specific section. This option is only supported by the ‘BFIN’, ‘CR16’ and M68K targets.
--disable-multiple-abs-defs
Do not allow multiple definitions with symbols included in filename invoked by -R or –just-symbols
--fatal-warnings
--no-fatal-warnings
Treat all warnings as errors. The default behaviour can be restored with the option --no-fatal-warnings.
--force-exe-suffix
Make sure that an output file has a .exe suffix.
If a successfully built fully linked output file does not have a
.exe
or .dll
suffix, this option forces the linker to copy
the output file to one of the same name with a .exe
suffix. This
option is useful when using unmodified Unix makefiles on a Microsoft
Windows host, since some versions of Windows won’t run an image unless
it ends in a .exe
suffix.
--gc-sections
--no-gc-sections
Enable garbage collection of unused input sections. It is ignored on targets that do not support this option. The default behaviour (of not performing this garbage collection) can be restored by specifying ‘--no-gc-sections’ on the command line. Note that garbage collection for COFF and PE format targets is supported, but the implementation is currently considered to be experimental.
‘--gc-sections’ decides which input sections are used by examining symbols and relocations. The section containing the entry symbol and all sections containing symbols undefined on the command-line will be kept, as will sections containing symbols referenced by dynamic objects. Note that when building shared libraries, the linker must assume that any visible symbol is referenced. Once this initial set of sections has been determined, the linker recursively marks as used any section referenced by their relocations. See ‘--entry’, ‘--undefined’, and ‘--gc-keep-exported’.
This option can be set when doing a partial link (enabled with option
‘-r’). In this case the root of symbols kept must be explicitly
specified either by one of the options ‘--entry’,
‘--undefined’, or ‘--gc-keep-exported’ or by a ENTRY
command in the linker script.
As a GNU extension, ELF input sections marked with the
SHF_GNU_RETAIN
flag will not be garbage collected.
--print-gc-sections
--no-print-gc-sections
List all sections removed by garbage collection. The listing is printed on stderr. This option is only effective if garbage collection has been enabled via the ‘--gc-sections’) option. The default behaviour (of not listing the sections that are removed) can be restored by specifying ‘--no-print-gc-sections’ on the command line.
--gc-keep-exported
When ‘--gc-sections’ is enabled, this option prevents garbage collection of unused input sections that contain global symbols having default or protected visibility. This option is intended to be used for executables where unreferenced sections would otherwise be garbage collected regardless of the external visibility of contained symbols. Note that this option has no effect when linking shared objects since it is already the default behaviour. This option is only supported for ELF format targets.
--print-output-format
Print the name of the default output format (perhaps influenced by
other command-line options). This is the string that would appear
in an OUTPUT_FORMAT
linker script command (see File Commands).
--print-memory-usage
Print used size, total size and used size of memory regions created with the MEMORY command. This is useful on embedded targets to have a quick view of amount of free memory. The format of the output has one headline and one line per region. It is both human readable and easily parsable by tools. Here is an example of an output:
Memory region Used Size Region Size %age Used ROM: 256 KB 1 MB 25.00% RAM: 32 B 2 GB 0.00%
--help
Print a summary of the command-line options on the standard output and exit.
--target-help
Print a summary of all target-specific options on the standard output and exit.
-Map=mapfile
Print a link map to the file mapfile. See the description of the
-M option, above. If mapfile is just the character
-
then the map will be written to stdout.
Specifying a directory as mapfile causes the linker map to be
written as a file inside the directory. Normally name of the file
inside the directory is computed as the basename of the output
file with .map
appended. If however the special character
%
is used then this will be replaced by the full path of the
output file. Additionally if there are any characters after the
% symbol then .map
will no longer be appended.
-o foo.exe -Map=bar [Creates ./bar] -o ../dir/foo.exe -Map=bar [Creates ./bar] -o foo.exe -Map=../dir [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.map] -o ../dir2/foo.exe -Map=../dir [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.map] -o foo.exe -Map=% [Creates ./foo.exe.map] -o ../dir/foo.exe -Map=% [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.map] -o foo.exe -Map=%.bar [Creates ./foo.exe.bar] -o ../dir/foo.exe -Map=%.bar [Creates ../dir/foo.exe.bar] -o ../dir2/foo.exe -Map=../dir/% [Creates ../dir/../dir2/foo.exe.map] -o ../dir2/foo.exe -Map=../dir/%.bar [Creates ../dir/../dir2/foo.exe.bar]
It is an error to specify more than one %
character.
If the map file already exists then it will be overwritten by this operation.
--no-keep-memory
ld
normally optimizes for speed over memory usage by caching the
symbol tables of input files in memory. This option tells ld
to
instead optimize for memory usage, by rereading the symbol tables as
necessary. This may be required if ld
runs out of memory space
while linking a large executable.
--no-undefined
-z defs
Report unresolved symbol references from regular object files. This is done even if the linker is creating a non-symbolic shared library. The switch --[no-]allow-shlib-undefined controls the behaviour for reporting unresolved references found in shared libraries being linked in.
The effects of this option can be reverted by using -z undefs
.
--allow-multiple-definition
-z muldefs
Normally when a symbol is defined multiple times, the linker will report a fatal error. These options allow multiple definitions and the first definition will be used.
--allow-shlib-undefined
--no-allow-shlib-undefined
Allows or disallows undefined symbols in shared libraries. This switch is similar to --no-undefined except that it determines the behaviour when the undefined symbols are in a shared library rather than a regular object file. It does not affect how undefined symbols in regular object files are handled.
The default behaviour is to report errors for any undefined symbols referenced in shared libraries if the linker is being used to create an executable, but to allow them if the linker is being used to create a shared library.
The reasons for allowing undefined symbol references in shared libraries specified at link time are that:
The BeOS kernel for example patches shared libraries at load time to select whichever function is most appropriate for the current architecture. This is used, for example, to dynamically select an appropriate memset function.
--error-handling-script=scriptname
If this option is provided then the linker will invoke scriptname whenever an error is encountered. Currently however only two kinds of error are supported: missing symbols and missing libraries. Two arguments will be passed to script: the keyword “undefined-symbol” or ‘missing-lib” and the name of the undefined symbol or missing library. The intention is that the script will provide suggestions to the user as to where the symbol or library might be found. After the script has finished then the normal linker error message will be displayed.
The availability of this option is controlled by a configure time switch, so it may not be present in specific implementations.
--no-undefined-version
Normally when a symbol has an undefined version, the linker will ignore it. This option disallows symbols with undefined version and a fatal error will be issued instead.
--default-symver
Create and use a default symbol version (the soname) for unversioned exported symbols.
--default-imported-symver
Create and use a default symbol version (the soname) for unversioned imported symbols.
--no-warn-mismatch
Normally ld
will give an error if you try to link together input
files that are mismatched for some reason, perhaps because they have
been compiled for different processors or for different endiannesses.
This option tells ld
that it should silently permit such possible
errors. This option should only be used with care, in cases when you
have taken some special action that ensures that the linker errors are
inappropriate.
--no-warn-search-mismatch
Normally ld
will give a warning if it finds an incompatible
library during a library search. This option silences the warning.
--no-whole-archive
Turn off the effect of the --whole-archive option for subsequent archive files.
--noinhibit-exec
Retain the executable output file whenever it is still usable. Normally, the linker will not produce an output file if it encounters errors during the link process; it exits without writing an output file when it issues any error whatsoever.
-nostdlib
Only search library directories explicitly specified on the command line. Library directories specified in linker scripts (including linker scripts specified on the command line) are ignored.
--oformat=output-format
ld
may be configured to support more than one kind of object
file. If your ld
is configured this way, you can use the
‘--oformat’ option to specify the binary format for the output
object file. Even when ld
is configured to support alternative
object formats, you don’t usually need to specify this, as ld
should be configured to produce as a default output format the most
usual format on each machine. output-format is a text string, the
name of a particular format supported by the BFD libraries. (You can
list the available binary formats with ‘objdump -i’.) The script
command OUTPUT_FORMAT
can also specify the output format, but
this option overrides it. See BFD.
--out-implib file
Create an import library in file corresponding to the executable
the linker is generating (eg. a DLL or ELF program). This import
library (which should be called *.dll.a
or *.a
for DLLs)
may be used to link clients against the generated executable; this
behaviour makes it possible to skip a separate import library creation
step (eg. dlltool
for DLLs). This option is only available for
the i386 PE and ELF targetted ports of the linker.
-pie
--pic-executable
Create a position independent executable. This is currently only supported on ELF platforms. Position independent executables are similar to shared libraries in that they are relocated by the dynamic linker to the virtual address the OS chooses for them (which can vary between invocations). Like normal dynamically linked executables they can be executed and symbols defined in the executable cannot be overridden by shared libraries.
-qmagic
This option is ignored for Linux compatibility.
-Qy
This option is ignored for SVR4 compatibility.
--relax
--no-relax
An option with machine dependent effects.
This option is only supported on a few targets.
See ld
and the H8/300.
See ld
and Xtensa Processors.
See ld
and the 68HC11 and 68HC12.
See ld
and the Altera Nios II.
See ld
and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Support.
On some platforms the --relax option performs target specific, global optimizations that become possible when the linker resolves addressing in the program, such as relaxing address modes, synthesizing new instructions, selecting shorter version of current instructions, and combining constant values.
On some platforms these link time global optimizations may make symbolic debugging of the resulting executable impossible. This is known to be the case for the Matsushita MN10200 and MN10300 family of processors.
On platforms where the feature is supported, the option --no-relax will disable it.
On platforms where the feature is not supported, both --relax and --no-relax are accepted, but ignored.
--retain-symbols-file=filename
Retain only the symbols listed in the file filename, discarding all others. filename is simply a flat file, with one symbol name per line. This option is especially useful in environments (such as VxWorks) where a large global symbol table is accumulated gradually, to conserve run-time memory.
‘--retain-symbols-file’ does not discard undefined symbols, or symbols needed for relocations.
You may only specify ‘--retain-symbols-file’ once in the command line. It overrides ‘-s’ and ‘-S’.
-rpath=dir
Add a directory to the runtime library search path. This is used when linking an ELF executable with shared objects. All -rpath arguments are concatenated and passed to the runtime linker, which uses them to locate shared objects at runtime.
The -rpath option is also used when locating shared objects which are needed by shared objects explicitly included in the link; see the description of the -rpath-link option. Searching -rpath in this way is only supported by native linkers and cross linkers which have been configured with the --with-sysroot option.
If -rpath is not used when linking an ELF executable, the
contents of the environment variable LD_RUN_PATH
will be used if it
is defined.
The -rpath option may also be used on SunOS. By default, on SunOS, the linker will form a runtime search path out of all the -L options it is given. If a -rpath option is used, the runtime search path will be formed exclusively using the -rpath options, ignoring the -L options. This can be useful when using gcc, which adds many -L options which may be on NFS mounted file systems.
For compatibility with other ELF linkers, if the -R option is followed by a directory name, rather than a file name, it is treated as the -rpath option.
-rpath-link=dir
When using ELF or SunOS, one shared library may require another. This
happens when an ld -shared
link includes a shared library as one
of the input files.
When the linker encounters such a dependency when doing a non-shared, non-relocatable link, it will automatically try to locate the required shared library and include it in the link, if it is not included explicitly. In such a case, the -rpath-link option specifies the first set of directories to search. The -rpath-link option may specify a sequence of directory names either by specifying a list of names separated by colons, or by appearing multiple times.
The tokens $ORIGIN and $LIB can appear in these search directories. They will be replaced by the full path to the directory containing the program or shared object in the case of $ORIGIN and either ‘lib’ - for 32-bit binaries - or ‘lib64’ - for 64-bit binaries - in the case of $LIB.
The alternative form of these tokens - ${ORIGIN} and ${LIB} can also be used. The token $PLATFORM is not supported.
This option should be used with caution as it overrides the search path that may have been hard compiled into a shared library. In such a case it is possible to use unintentionally a different search path than the runtime linker would do.
The linker uses the following search paths to locate required shared libraries:
LD_RUN_PATH
.
LD_LIBRARY_PATH
.
DT_RUNPATH
or
DT_RPATH
of a shared library are searched for shared
libraries needed by it. The DT_RPATH
entries are ignored if
DT_RUNPATH
entries exist.
sysroot
value, if that is
defined, and then any prefix
string if the linker was
configured with the --prefix=<path>
option.
_PATH_ELF_HINTS
macro defined in the elf-hints.h
header file.
SEARCH_DIR
command in the
linker script being used.
Note however on Linux based systems there is an additional caveat: If the --as-needed option is active and a shared library is located which would normally satisfy the search and this library does not have DT_NEEDED tag for libc.so and there is a shared library later on in the set of search directories which also satisfies the search and this second shared library does have a DT_NEEDED tag for libc.so then the second library will be selected instead of the first.
If the required shared library is not found, the linker will issue a warning and continue with the link.
-shared
-Bshareable
Create a shared library. This is currently only supported on ELF, XCOFF and SunOS platforms. On SunOS, the linker will automatically create a shared library if the -e option is not used and there are undefined symbols in the link.
--sort-common
--sort-common=ascending
--sort-common=descending
This option tells ld
to sort the common symbols by alignment in
ascending or descending order when it places them in the appropriate output
sections. The symbol alignments considered are sixteen-byte or larger,
eight-byte, four-byte, two-byte, and one-byte. This is to prevent gaps
between symbols due to alignment constraints. If no sorting order is
specified, then descending order is assumed.
--sort-section=name
This option will apply SORT_BY_NAME
to all wildcard section
patterns in the linker script.
--sort-section=alignment
This option will apply SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
to all wildcard section
patterns in the linker script.
--spare-dynamic-tags=count
This option specifies the number of empty slots to leave in the .dynamic section of ELF shared objects. Empty slots may be needed by post processing tools, such as the prelinker. The default is 5.
--split-by-file[=size]
Similar to --split-by-reloc but creates a new output section for each input file when size is reached. size defaults to a size of 1 if not given.
--split-by-reloc[=count]
Tries to creates extra sections in the output file so that no single output section in the file contains more than count relocations. This is useful when generating huge relocatable files for downloading into certain real time kernels with the COFF object file format; since COFF cannot represent more than 65535 relocations in a single section. Note that this will fail to work with object file formats which do not support arbitrary sections. The linker will not split up individual input sections for redistribution, so if a single input section contains more than count relocations one output section will contain that many relocations. count defaults to a value of 32768.
--stats
Compute and display statistics about the operation of the linker, such as execution time and memory usage.
--sysroot=directory
Use directory as the location of the sysroot, overriding the configure-time default. This option is only supported by linkers that were configured using --with-sysroot.
--task-link
This is used by COFF/PE based targets to create a task-linked object file where all of the global symbols have been converted to statics.
--traditional-format
For some targets, the output of ld
is different in some ways from
the output of some existing linker. This switch requests ld
to
use the traditional format instead.
For example, on SunOS, ld
combines duplicate entries in the
symbol string table. This can reduce the size of an output file with
full debugging information by over 30 percent. Unfortunately, the SunOS
dbx
program can not read the resulting program (gdb
has no
trouble). The ‘--traditional-format’ switch tells ld
to not
combine duplicate entries.
--section-start=sectionname=org
Locate a section in the output file at the absolute address given by org. You may use this option as many times as necessary to locate multiple sections in the command line. org must be a single hexadecimal integer; for compatibility with other linkers, you may omit the leading ‘0x’ usually associated with hexadecimal values. Note: there should be no white space between sectionname, the equals sign (“=”), and org.
-Tbss=org
-Tdata=org
-Ttext=org
Same as --section-start, with .bss
, .data
or
.text
as the sectionname.
-Ttext-segment=org
When creating an ELF executable, it will set the address of the first byte of the text segment.
-Trodata-segment=org
When creating an ELF executable or shared object for a target where the read-only data is in its own segment separate from the executable text, it will set the address of the first byte of the read-only data segment.
-Tldata-segment=org
When creating an ELF executable or shared object for x86-64 medium memory model, it will set the address of the first byte of the ldata segment.
--unresolved-symbols=method
Determine how to handle unresolved symbols. There are four possible values for ‘method’:
Do not report any unresolved symbols.
Report all unresolved symbols. This is the default.
Report unresolved symbols that are contained in shared libraries, but ignore them if they come from regular object files.
Report unresolved symbols that come from regular object files, but ignore them if they come from shared libraries. This can be useful when creating a dynamic binary and it is known that all the shared libraries that it should be referencing are included on the linker’s command line.
The behaviour for shared libraries on their own can also be controlled by the --[no-]allow-shlib-undefined option.
Normally the linker will generate an error message for each reported unresolved symbol but the option --warn-unresolved-symbols can change this to a warning.
--dll-verbose
--verbose[=NUMBER]
Display the version number for ld
and list the linker emulations
supported. Display which input files can and cannot be opened. Display
the linker script being used by the linker. If the optional NUMBER
argument > 1, plugin symbol status will also be displayed.
--version-script=version-scriptfile
Specify the name of a version script to the linker. This is typically used when creating shared libraries to specify additional information about the version hierarchy for the library being created. This option is only fully supported on ELF platforms which support shared libraries; see VERSION. It is partially supported on PE platforms, which can use version scripts to filter symbol visibility in auto-export mode: any symbols marked ‘local’ in the version script will not be exported. See WIN32.
--warn-common
Warn when a common symbol is combined with another common symbol or with a symbol definition. Unix linkers allow this somewhat sloppy practice, but linkers on some other operating systems do not. This option allows you to find potential problems from combining global symbols. Unfortunately, some C libraries use this practice, so you may get some warnings about symbols in the libraries as well as in your programs.
There are three kinds of global symbols, illustrated here by C examples:
A definition, which goes in the initialized data section of the output file.
An undefined reference, which does not allocate space. There must be either a definition or a common symbol for the variable somewhere.
A common symbol. If there are only (one or more) common symbols for a variable, it goes in the uninitialized data area of the output file. The linker merges multiple common symbols for the same variable into a single symbol. If they are of different sizes, it picks the largest size. The linker turns a common symbol into a declaration, if there is a definition of the same variable.
The ‘--warn-common’ option can produce five kinds of warnings. Each warning consists of a pair of lines: the first describes the symbol just encountered, and the second describes the previous symbol encountered with the same name. One or both of the two symbols will be a common symbol.
file(section): warning: common of `symbol' overridden by definition file(section): warning: defined here
file(section): warning: definition of `symbol' overriding common file(section): warning: common is here
file(section): warning: multiple common of `symbol' file(section): warning: previous common is here
file(section): warning: common of `symbol' overridden by larger common file(section): warning: larger common is here
file(section): warning: common of `symbol' overriding smaller common file(section): warning: smaller common is here
--warn-constructors
Warn if any global constructors are used. This is only useful for a few object file formats. For formats like COFF or ELF, the linker can not detect the use of global constructors.
--warn-multiple-gp
Warn if multiple global pointer values are required in the output file. This is only meaningful for certain processors, such as the Alpha. Specifically, some processors put large-valued constants in a special section. A special register (the global pointer) points into the middle of this section, so that constants can be loaded efficiently via a base-register relative addressing mode. Since the offset in base-register relative mode is fixed and relatively small (e.g., 16 bits), this limits the maximum size of the constant pool. Thus, in large programs, it is often necessary to use multiple global pointer values in order to be able to address all possible constants. This option causes a warning to be issued whenever this case occurs.
--warn-once
Only warn once for each undefined symbol, rather than once per module which refers to it.
--warn-section-align
Warn if the address of an output section is changed because of
alignment. Typically, the alignment will be set by an input section.
The address will only be changed if it not explicitly specified; that
is, if the SECTIONS
command does not specify a start address for
the section (see SECTIONS).
--warn-textrel
Warn if the linker adds DT_TEXTREL to a position-independent executable or shared object.
--warn-alternate-em
Warn if an object has alternate ELF machine code.
--warn-unresolved-symbols
If the linker is going to report an unresolved symbol (see the option --unresolved-symbols) it will normally generate an error. This option makes it generate a warning instead.
--error-unresolved-symbols
This restores the linker’s default behaviour of generating errors when it is reporting unresolved symbols.
--whole-archive
For each archive mentioned on the command line after the --whole-archive option, include every object file in the archive in the link, rather than searching the archive for the required object files. This is normally used to turn an archive file into a shared library, forcing every object to be included in the resulting shared library. This option may be used more than once.
Two notes when using this option from gcc: First, gcc doesn’t know about this option, so you have to use -Wl,-whole-archive. Second, don’t forget to use -Wl,-no-whole-archive after your list of archives, because gcc will add its own list of archives to your link and you may not want this flag to affect those as well.
--wrap=symbol
Use a wrapper function for symbol. Any undefined reference to
symbol will be resolved to __wrap_symbol
. Any
undefined reference to __real_symbol
will be resolved to
symbol.
This can be used to provide a wrapper for a system function. The
wrapper function should be called __wrap_symbol
. If it
wishes to call the system function, it should call
__real_symbol
.
Here is a trivial example:
void * __wrap_malloc (size_t c) { printf ("malloc called with %zu\n", c); return __real_malloc (c); }
If you link other code with this file using --wrap malloc, then
all calls to malloc
will call the function __wrap_malloc
instead. The call to __real_malloc
in __wrap_malloc
will
call the real malloc
function.
You may wish to provide a __real_malloc
function as well, so that
links without the --wrap option will succeed. If you do this,
you should not put the definition of __real_malloc
in the same
file as __wrap_malloc
; if you do, the assembler may resolve the
call before the linker has a chance to wrap it to malloc
.
Only undefined references are replaced by the linker. So, translation unit
internal references to symbol are not resolved to
__wrap_symbol
. In the next example, the call to f
in
g
is not resolved to __wrap_f
.
int f (void) { return 123; } int g (void) { return f(); }
--eh-frame-hdr
--no-eh-frame-hdr
Request (--eh-frame-hdr) or suppress
(--no-eh-frame-hdr) the creation of .eh_frame_hdr
section and ELF PT_GNU_EH_FRAME
segment header.
--no-ld-generated-unwind-info
Request creation of .eh_frame
unwind info for linker
generated code sections like PLT. This option is on by default
if linker generated unwind info is supported.
--enable-new-dtags
--disable-new-dtags
This linker can create the new dynamic tags in ELF. But the older ELF systems may not understand them. If you specify --enable-new-dtags, the new dynamic tags will be created as needed and older dynamic tags will be omitted. If you specify --disable-new-dtags, no new dynamic tags will be created. By default, the new dynamic tags are not created. Note that those options are only available for ELF systems.
--hash-size=number
Set the default size of the linker’s hash tables to a prime number close to number. Increasing this value can reduce the length of time it takes the linker to perform its tasks, at the expense of increasing the linker’s memory requirements. Similarly reducing this value can reduce the memory requirements at the expense of speed.
--hash-style=style
Set the type of linker’s hash table(s). style can be either
sysv
for classic ELF .hash
section, gnu
for
new style GNU .gnu.hash
section or both
for both
the classic ELF .hash
and new style GNU .gnu.hash
hash tables. The default depends upon how the linker was configured,
but for most Linux based systems it will be both
.
--compress-debug-sections=none
--compress-debug-sections=zlib
--compress-debug-sections=zlib-gnu
--compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi
On ELF platforms, these options control how DWARF debug sections are compressed using zlib.
--compress-debug-sections=none doesn’t compress DWARF debug sections. --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gnu compresses DWARF debug sections and renames them to begin with ‘.zdebug’ instead of ‘.debug’. --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi also compresses DWARF debug sections, but rather than renaming them it sets the SHF_COMPRESSED flag in the sections’ headers.
The --compress-debug-sections=zlib option is an alias for --compress-debug-sections=zlib-gabi.
Note that this option overrides any compression in input debug sections, so if a binary is linked with --compress-debug-sections=none for example, then any compressed debug sections in input files will be uncompressed before they are copied into the output binary.
The default compression behaviour varies depending upon the target involved and the configure options used to build the toolchain. The default can be determined by examining the output from the linker’s --help option.
--reduce-memory-overheads
This option reduces memory requirements at ld runtime, at the expense of linking speed. This was introduced to select the old O(n^2) algorithm for link map file generation, rather than the new O(n) algorithm which uses about 40% more memory for symbol storage.
Another effect of the switch is to set the default hash table size to 1021, which again saves memory at the cost of lengthening the linker’s run time. This is not done however if the --hash-size switch has been used.
The --reduce-memory-overheads switch may be also be used to enable other tradeoffs in future versions of the linker.
--build-id
--build-id=style
Request the creation of a .note.gnu.build-id
ELF note section
or a .buildid
COFF section. The contents of the note are
unique bits identifying this linked file. style can be
uuid
to use 128 random bits, sha1
to use a 160-bit
SHA1 hash on the normative parts of the output contents,
md5
to use a 128-bit MD5 hash on the normative parts of
the output contents, or 0xhexstring
to use a chosen bit
string specified as an even number of hexadecimal digits (-
and
:
characters between digit pairs are ignored). If style
is omitted, sha1
is used.
The md5
and sha1
styles produces an identifier
that is always the same in an identical output file, but will be
unique among all nonidentical output files. It is not intended
to be compared as a checksum for the file’s contents. A linked
file may be changed later by other tools, but the build ID bit
string identifying the original linked file does not change.
Passing none
for style disables the setting from any
--build-id
options earlier on the command line.
The i386 PE linker supports the -shared option, which causes
the output to be a dynamically linked library (DLL) instead of a
normal executable. You should name the output *.dll
when you
use this option. In addition, the linker fully supports the standard
*.def
files, which may be specified on the linker command line
like an object file (in fact, it should precede archives it exports
symbols from, to ensure that they get linked in, just like a normal
object file).
In addition to the options common to all targets, the i386 PE linker support additional command-line options that are specific to the i386 PE target. Options that take values may be separated from their values by either a space or an equals sign.
--add-stdcall-alias
If given, symbols with a stdcall suffix (@nn) will be exported as-is and also with the suffix stripped. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--base-file file
Use file as the name of a file in which to save the base addresses of all the relocations needed for generating DLLs with dlltool. [This is an i386 PE specific option]
--dll
Create a DLL instead of a regular executable. You may also use
-shared or specify a LIBRARY
in a given .def
file.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--enable-long-section-names
--disable-long-section-names
The PE variants of the COFF object format add an extension that permits
the use of section names longer than eight characters, the normal limit
for COFF. By default, these names are only allowed in object files, as
fully-linked executable images do not carry the COFF string table required
to support the longer names. As a GNU extension, it is possible to
allow their use in executable images as well, or to (probably pointlessly!)
disallow it in object files, by using these two options. Executable images
generated with these long section names are slightly non-standard, carrying
as they do a string table, and may generate confusing output when examined
with non-GNU PE-aware tools, such as file viewers and dumpers. However,
GDB relies on the use of PE long section names to find Dwarf-2 debug
information sections in an executable image at runtime, and so if neither
option is specified on the command-line, ld
will enable long
section names, overriding the default and technically correct behaviour,
when it finds the presence of debug information while linking an executable
image and not stripping symbols.
[This option is valid for all PE targeted ports of the linker]
--enable-stdcall-fixup
--disable-stdcall-fixup
If the link finds a symbol that it cannot resolve, it will attempt to
do “fuzzy linking” by looking for another defined symbol that differs
only in the format of the symbol name (cdecl vs stdcall) and will
resolve that symbol by linking to the match. For example, the
undefined symbol _foo
might be linked to the function
_foo@12
, or the undefined symbol _bar@16
might be linked
to the function _bar
. When the linker does this, it prints a
warning, since it normally should have failed to link, but sometimes
import libraries generated from third-party dlls may need this feature
to be usable. If you specify --enable-stdcall-fixup, this
feature is fully enabled and warnings are not printed. If you specify
--disable-stdcall-fixup, this feature is disabled and such
mismatches are considered to be errors.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--leading-underscore
--no-leading-underscore
For most targets default symbol-prefix is an underscore and is defined in target’s description. By this option it is possible to disable/enable the default underscore symbol-prefix.
--export-all-symbols
If given, all global symbols in the objects used to build a DLL will
be exported by the DLL. Note that this is the default if there
otherwise wouldn’t be any exported symbols. When symbols are
explicitly exported via DEF files or implicitly exported via function
attributes, the default is to not export anything else unless this
option is given. Note that the symbols DllMain@12
,
DllEntryPoint@0
, DllMainCRTStartup@12
, and
impure_ptr
will not be automatically
exported. Also, symbols imported from other DLLs will not be
re-exported, nor will symbols specifying the DLL’s internal layout
such as those beginning with _head_
or ending with
_iname
. In addition, no symbols from libgcc
,
libstd++
, libmingw32
, or crtX.o
will be exported.
Symbols whose names begin with __rtti_
or __builtin_
will
not be exported, to help with C++ DLLs. Finally, there is an
extensive list of cygwin-private symbols that are not exported
(obviously, this applies on when building DLLs for cygwin targets).
These cygwin-excludes are: _cygwin_dll_entry@12
,
_cygwin_crt0_common@8
, _cygwin_noncygwin_dll_entry@12
,
_fmode
, _impure_ptr
, cygwin_attach_dll
,
cygwin_premain0
, cygwin_premain1
, cygwin_premain2
,
cygwin_premain3
, and environ
.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--exclude-symbols symbol,symbol,...
Specifies a list of symbols which should not be automatically exported. The symbol names may be delimited by commas or colons. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--exclude-all-symbols
Specifies no symbols should be automatically exported. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--file-alignment
Specify the file alignment. Sections in the file will always begin at file offsets which are multiples of this number. This defaults to 512. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--heap reserve
--heap reserve,commit
Specify the number of bytes of memory to reserve (and optionally commit) to be used as heap for this program. The default is 1MB reserved, 4K committed. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--image-base value
Use value as the base address of your program or dll. This is the lowest memory location that will be used when your program or dll is loaded. To reduce the need to relocate and improve performance of your dlls, each should have a unique base address and not overlap any other dlls. The default is 0x400000 for executables, and 0x10000000 for dlls. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--kill-at
If given, the stdcall suffixes (@nn) will be stripped from symbols before they are exported. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--large-address-aware
If given, the appropriate bit in the “Characteristics” field of the COFF header is set to indicate that this executable supports virtual addresses greater than 2 gigabytes. This should be used in conjunction with the /3GB or /USERVA=value megabytes switch in the “[operating systems]” section of the BOOT.INI. Otherwise, this bit has no effect. [This option is specific to PE targeted ports of the linker]
--disable-large-address-aware
Reverts the effect of a previous ‘--large-address-aware’ option. This is useful if ‘--large-address-aware’ is always set by the compiler driver (e.g. Cygwin gcc) and the executable does not support virtual addresses greater than 2 gigabytes. [This option is specific to PE targeted ports of the linker]
--major-image-version value
Sets the major number of the “image version”. Defaults to 1. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--major-os-version value
Sets the major number of the “os version”. Defaults to 4. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--major-subsystem-version value
Sets the major number of the “subsystem version”. Defaults to 4. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--minor-image-version value
Sets the minor number of the “image version”. Defaults to 0. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--minor-os-version value
Sets the minor number of the “os version”. Defaults to 0. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--minor-subsystem-version value
Sets the minor number of the “subsystem version”. Defaults to 0. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--output-def file
The linker will create the file file which will contain a DEF
file corresponding to the DLL the linker is generating. This DEF file
(which should be called *.def
) may be used to create an import
library with dlltool
or may be used as a reference to
automatically or implicitly exported symbols.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--enable-auto-image-base
--enable-auto-image-base=value
Automatically choose the image base for DLLs, optionally starting with base
value, unless one is specified using the --image-base
argument.
By using a hash generated from the dllname to create unique image bases
for each DLL, in-memory collisions and relocations which can delay program
execution are avoided.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--disable-auto-image-base
Do not automatically generate a unique image base. If there is no
user-specified image base (--image-base
) then use the platform
default.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--dll-search-prefix string
When linking dynamically to a dll without an import library,
search for <string><basename>.dll
in preference to
lib<basename>.dll
. This behaviour allows easy distinction
between DLLs built for the various "subplatforms": native, cygwin,
uwin, pw, etc. For instance, cygwin DLLs typically use
--dll-search-prefix=cyg
.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--enable-auto-import
Do sophisticated linking of _symbol
to __imp__symbol
for
DATA imports from DLLs, thus making it possible to bypass the dllimport
mechanism on the user side and to reference unmangled symbol names.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
The following remarks pertain to the original implementation of the feature and are obsolete nowadays for Cygwin and MinGW targets.
Note: Use of the ’auto-import’ extension will cause the text section of the image file to be made writable. This does not conform to the PE-COFF format specification published by Microsoft.
Note - use of the ’auto-import’ extension will also cause read only data which would normally be placed into the .rdata section to be placed into the .data section instead. This is in order to work around a problem with consts that is described here: http://www.cygwin.com/ml/cygwin/2004-09/msg01101.html
Using ’auto-import’ generally will ’just work’ – but sometimes you may see this message:
"variable ’<var>’ can’t be auto-imported. Please read the
documentation for ld’s --enable-auto-import
for details."
This message occurs when some (sub)expression accesses an address ultimately given by the sum of two constants (Win32 import tables only allow one). Instances where this may occur include accesses to member fields of struct variables imported from a DLL, as well as using a constant index into an array variable imported from a DLL. Any multiword variable (arrays, structs, long long, etc) may trigger this error condition. However, regardless of the exact data type of the offending exported variable, ld will always detect it, issue the warning, and exit.
There are several ways to address this difficulty, regardless of the data type of the exported variable:
One way is to use –enable-runtime-pseudo-reloc switch. This leaves the task of adjusting references in your client code for runtime environment, so this method works only when runtime environment supports this feature.
A second solution is to force one of the ’constants’ to be a variable – that is, unknown and un-optimizable at compile time. For arrays, there are two possibilities: a) make the indexee (the array’s address) a variable, or b) make the ’constant’ index a variable. Thus:
extern type extern_array[]; extern_array[1] --> { volatile type *t=extern_array; t[1] }
or
extern type extern_array[]; extern_array[1] --> { volatile int t=1; extern_array[t] }
For structs (and most other multiword data types) the only option is to make the struct itself (or the long long, or the ...) variable:
extern struct s extern_struct; extern_struct.field --> { volatile struct s *t=&extern_struct; t->field }
or
extern long long extern_ll; extern_ll --> { volatile long long * local_ll=&extern_ll; *local_ll }
A third method of dealing with this difficulty is to abandon
’auto-import’ for the offending symbol and mark it with
__declspec(dllimport)
. However, in practice that
requires using compile-time #defines to indicate whether you are
building a DLL, building client code that will link to the DLL, or
merely building/linking to a static library. In making the choice
between the various methods of resolving the ’direct address with
constant offset’ problem, you should consider typical real-world usage:
Original:
--foo.h extern int arr[]; --foo.c #include "foo.h" void main(int argc, char **argv){ printf("%d\n",arr[1]); }
Solution 1:
--foo.h extern int arr[]; --foo.c #include "foo.h" void main(int argc, char **argv){ /* This workaround is for win32 and cygwin; do not "optimize" */ volatile int *parr = arr; printf("%d\n",parr[1]); }
Solution 2:
--foo.h /* Note: auto-export is assumed (no __declspec(dllexport)) */ #if (defined(_WIN32) || defined(__CYGWIN__)) && \ !(defined(FOO_BUILD_DLL) || defined(FOO_STATIC)) #define FOO_IMPORT __declspec(dllimport) #else #define FOO_IMPORT #endif extern FOO_IMPORT int arr[]; --foo.c #include "foo.h" void main(int argc, char **argv){ printf("%d\n",arr[1]); }
A fourth way to avoid this problem is to re-code your library to use a functional interface rather than a data interface for the offending variables (e.g. set_foo() and get_foo() accessor functions).
--disable-auto-import
Do not attempt to do sophisticated linking of _symbol
to
__imp__symbol
for DATA imports from DLLs.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--enable-runtime-pseudo-reloc
If your code contains expressions described in –enable-auto-import section, that is, DATA imports from DLL with non-zero offset, this switch will create a vector of ’runtime pseudo relocations’ which can be used by runtime environment to adjust references to such data in your client code. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--disable-runtime-pseudo-reloc
Do not create pseudo relocations for non-zero offset DATA imports from DLLs. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--enable-extra-pe-debug
Show additional debug info related to auto-import symbol thunking. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--section-alignment
Sets the section alignment. Sections in memory will always begin at addresses which are a multiple of this number. Defaults to 0x1000. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--stack reserve
--stack reserve,commit
Specify the number of bytes of memory to reserve (and optionally commit) to be used as stack for this program. The default is 2MB reserved, 4K committed. [This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
--subsystem which
--subsystem which:major
--subsystem which:major.minor
Specifies the subsystem under which your program will execute. The
legal values for which are native
, windows
,
console
, posix
, and xbox
. You may optionally set
the subsystem version also. Numeric values are also accepted for
which.
[This option is specific to the i386 PE targeted port of the linker]
The following options set flags in the DllCharacteristics
field
of the PE file header:
[These options are specific to PE targeted ports of the linker]
--high-entropy-va
--disable-high-entropy-va
Image is compatible with 64-bit address space layout randomization (ASLR). This option is enabled by default for 64-bit PE images.
This option also implies --dynamicbase and --enable-reloc-section.
--dynamicbase
--disable-dynamicbase
The image base address may be relocated using address space layout randomization (ASLR). This feature was introduced with MS Windows Vista for i386 PE targets. This option is enabled by default but can be disabled via the --disable-dynamicbase option. This option also implies --enable-reloc-section.
--forceinteg
--disable-forceinteg
Code integrity checks are enforced. This option is disabled by default.
--nxcompat
--disable-nxcompat
The image is compatible with the Data Execution Prevention. This feature was introduced with MS Windows XP SP2 for i386 PE targets. The option is enabled by default.
--no-isolation
--disable-no-isolation
Although the image understands isolation, do not isolate the image. This option is disabled by default.
--no-seh
--disable-no-seh
The image does not use SEH. No SE handler may be called from this image. This option is disabled by default.
--no-bind
--disable-no-bind
Do not bind this image. This option is disabled by default.
--wdmdriver
--disable-wdmdriver
The driver uses the MS Windows Driver Model. This option is disabled by default.
--tsaware
--disable-tsaware
The image is Terminal Server aware. This option is disabled by default.
--insert-timestamp
--no-insert-timestamp
Insert a real timestamp into the image. This is the default behaviour as it matches legacy code and it means that the image will work with other, proprietary tools. The problem with this default is that it will result in slightly different images being produced each time the same sources are linked. The option --no-insert-timestamp can be used to insert a zero value for the timestamp, this ensuring that binaries produced from identical sources will compare identically.
--enable-reloc-section
--disable-reloc-section
Create the base relocation table, which is necessary if the image is loaded at a different image base than specified in the PE header. This option is enabled by default.
The C6X uClinux target uses a binary format called DSBT to support shared libraries. Each shared library in the system needs to have a unique index; all executables use an index of 0.
--dsbt-size size
This option sets the number of entries in the DSBT of the current executable or shared library to size. The default is to create a table with 64 entries.
--dsbt-index index
This option sets the DSBT index of the current executable or shared library
to index. The default is 0, which is appropriate for generating
executables. If a shared library is generated with a DSBT index of 0, the
R_C6000_DSBT_INDEX
relocs are copied into the output file.
The ‘--no-merge-exidx-entries’ switch disables the merging of adjacent exidx entries in frame unwind info.
--branch-stub
This option enables linker branch relaxation by inserting branch stub sections when needed to extend the range of branches. This option is usually not required since C-SKY supports branch and call instructions that can access the full memory range and branch relaxation is normally handled by the compiler or assembler.
--stub-group-size=N
This option allows finer control of linker branch stub creation. It sets the maximum size of a group of input sections that can be handled by one stub section. A negative value of N locates stub sections after their branches, while a positive value allows stub sections to appear either before or after the branches. Values of ‘1’ or ‘-1’ indicate that the linker should choose suitable defaults.
The 68HC11 and 68HC12 linkers support specific options to control the memory bank switching mapping and trampoline code generation.
--no-trampoline
This option disables the generation of trampoline. By default a trampoline
is generated for each far function which is called using a jsr
instruction (this happens when a pointer to a far function is taken).
--bank-window name
This option indicates to the linker the name of the memory region in the ‘MEMORY’ specification that describes the memory bank window. The definition of such region is then used by the linker to compute paging and addresses within the memory window.
The following options are supported to control handling of GOT generation when linking for 68K targets.
--got=type
This option tells the linker which GOT generation scheme to use. type should be one of ‘single’, ‘negative’, ‘multigot’ or ‘target’. For more information refer to the Info entry for ld.
The following options are supported to control microMIPS instruction generation and branch relocation checks for ISA mode transitions when linking for MIPS targets.
--insn32
--no-insn32
These options control the choice of microMIPS instructions used in code generated by the linker, such as that in the PLT or lazy binding stubs, or in relaxation. If ‘--insn32’ is used, then the linker only uses 32-bit instruction encodings. By default or if ‘--no-insn32’ is used, all instruction encodings are used, including 16-bit ones where possible.
--ignore-branch-isa
--no-ignore-branch-isa
These options control branch relocation checks for invalid ISA mode
transitions. If ‘--ignore-branch-isa’ is used, then the linker
accepts any branch relocations and any ISA mode transition required
is lost in relocation calculation, except for some cases of BAL
instructions which meet relaxation conditions and are converted to
equivalent JALX
instructions as the associated relocation is
calculated. By default or if ‘--no-ignore-branch-isa’ is used
a check is made causing the loss of an ISA mode transition to produce
an error.
--compact-branches
--no-compact-branches
These options control the generation of compact instructions by the linker in the PLT entries for MIPS R6.
For the pdp11-aout target, three variants of the output format can be produced as selected by the following options. The default variant for pdp11-aout is the ‘--omagic’ option, whereas for other targets ‘--nmagic’ is the default. The ‘--imagic’ option is defined only for the pdp11-aout target, while the others are described here as they apply to the pdp11-aout target.
-N
--omagic
Mark the output as OMAGIC
(0407) in the a.out header to
indicate that the text segment is not to be write-protected and
shared. Since the text and data sections are both readable and
writable, the data section is allocated immediately contiguous after
the text segment. This is the oldest format for PDP11 executable
programs and is the default for ld
on PDP11 Unix systems
from the beginning through 2.11BSD.
-n
--nmagic
Mark the output as NMAGIC
(0410) in the a.out header to
indicate that when the output file is executed, the text portion will
be read-only and shareable among all processes executing the same
file. This involves moving the data areas up to the first possible 8K
byte page boundary following the end of the text. This option creates
a pure executable format.
-z
--imagic
Mark the output as IMAGIC
(0411) in the a.out header to
indicate that when the output file is executed, the program text and
data areas will be loaded into separate address spaces using the split
instruction and data space feature of the memory management unit in
larger models of the PDP11. This doubles the address space available
to the program. The text segment is again pure, write-protected, and
shareable. The only difference in the output format between this
option and the others, besides the magic number, is that both the text
and data sections start at location 0. The ‘-z’ option selected
this format in 2.11BSD. This option creates a separate
executable format.
--no-omagic
Equivalent to ‘--nmagic’ for pdp11-aout.
Previous: Options, Up: Invocation [Contents][Index]
You can change the behaviour of ld
with the environment variables
GNUTARGET
,
LDEMULATION
and COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE
.
GNUTARGET
determines the input-file object format if you don’t
use ‘-b’ (or its synonym ‘--format’). Its value should be one
of the BFD names for an input format (see BFD). If there is no
GNUTARGET
in the environment, ld
uses the natural format
of the target. If GNUTARGET
is set to default
then BFD
attempts to discover the input format by examining binary input files;
this method often succeeds, but there are potential ambiguities, since
there is no method of ensuring that the magic number used to specify
object-file formats is unique. However, the configuration procedure for
BFD on each system places the conventional format for that system first
in the search-list, so ambiguities are resolved in favor of convention.
LDEMULATION
determines the default emulation if you don’t use the
‘-m’ option. The emulation can affect various aspects of linker
behaviour, particularly the default linker script. You can list the
available emulations with the ‘--verbose’ or ‘-V’ options. If
the ‘-m’ option is not used, and the LDEMULATION
environment
variable is not defined, the default emulation depends upon how the
linker was configured.
Normally, the linker will default to demangling symbols. However, if
COLLECT_NO_DEMANGLE
is set in the environment, then it will
default to not demangling symbols. This environment variable is used in
a similar fashion by the gcc
linker wrapper program. The default
may be overridden by the ‘--demangle’ and ‘--no-demangle’
options.
Next: Plugins, Previous: Invocation, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
Every link is controlled by a linker script. This script is written in the linker command language.
The main purpose of the linker script is to describe how the sections in the input files should be mapped into the output file, and to control the memory layout of the output file. Most linker scripts do nothing more than this. However, when necessary, the linker script can also direct the linker to perform many other operations, using the commands described below.
The linker always uses a linker script. If you do not supply one yourself, the linker will use a default script that is compiled into the linker executable. You can use the ‘--verbose’ command-line option to display the default linker script. Certain command-line options, such as ‘-r’ or ‘-N’, will affect the default linker script.
You may supply your own linker script by using the ‘-T’ command line option. When you do this, your linker script will replace the default linker script.
You may also use linker scripts implicitly by naming them as input files to the linker, as though they were files to be linked. See Implicit Linker Scripts.
• Basic Script Concepts | Basic Linker Script Concepts | |
• Script Format | Linker Script Format | |
• Simple Example | Simple Linker Script Example | |
• Simple Commands | Simple Linker Script Commands | |
• Assignments | Assigning Values to Symbols | |
• SECTIONS | SECTIONS Command | |
• MEMORY | MEMORY Command | |
• PHDRS | PHDRS Command | |
• VERSION | VERSION Command | |
• Expressions | Expressions in Linker Scripts | |
• Implicit Linker Scripts | Implicit Linker Scripts |
Next: Script Format, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
We need to define some basic concepts and vocabulary in order to describe the linker script language.
The linker combines input files into a single output file. The output file and each input file are in a special data format known as an object file format. Each file is called an object file. The output file is often called an executable, but for our purposes we will also call it an object file. Each object file has, among other things, a list of sections. We sometimes refer to a section in an input file as an input section; similarly, a section in the output file is an output section.
Each section in an object file has a name and a size. Most sections also have an associated block of data, known as the section contents. A section may be marked as loadable, which means that the contents should be loaded into memory when the output file is run. A section with no contents may be allocatable, which means that an area in memory should be set aside, but nothing in particular should be loaded there (in some cases this memory must be zeroed out). A section which is neither loadable nor allocatable typically contains some sort of debugging information.
Every loadable or allocatable output section has two addresses. The first is the VMA, or virtual memory address. This is the address the section will have when the output file is run. The second is the LMA, or load memory address. This is the address at which the section will be loaded. In most cases the two addresses will be the same. An example of when they might be different is when a data section is loaded into ROM, and then copied into RAM when the program starts up (this technique is often used to initialize global variables in a ROM based system). In this case the ROM address would be the LMA, and the RAM address would be the VMA.
You can see the sections in an object file by using the objdump
program with the ‘-h’ option.
Every object file also has a list of symbols, known as the symbol table. A symbol may be defined or undefined. Each symbol has a name, and each defined symbol has an address, among other information. If you compile a C or C++ program into an object file, you will get a defined symbol for every defined function and global or static variable. Every undefined function or global variable which is referenced in the input file will become an undefined symbol.
You can see the symbols in an object file by using the nm
program, or by using the objdump
program with the ‘-t’
option.
Next: Simple Example, Previous: Basic Script Concepts, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
Linker scripts are text files.
You write a linker script as a series of commands. Each command is either a keyword, possibly followed by arguments, or an assignment to a symbol. You may separate commands using semicolons. Whitespace is generally ignored.
Strings such as file or format names can normally be entered directly. If the file name contains a character such as a comma which would otherwise serve to separate file names, you may put the file name in double quotes. There is no way to use a double quote character in a file name.
You may include comments in linker scripts just as in C, delimited by ‘/*’ and ‘*/’. As in C, comments are syntactically equivalent to whitespace.
Next: Simple Commands, Previous: Script Format, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
Many linker scripts are fairly simple.
The simplest possible linker script has just one command: ‘SECTIONS’. You use the ‘SECTIONS’ command to describe the memory layout of the output file.
The ‘SECTIONS’ command is a powerful command. Here we will describe a simple use of it. Let’s assume your program consists only of code, initialized data, and uninitialized data. These will be in the ‘.text’, ‘.data’, and ‘.bss’ sections, respectively. Let’s assume further that these are the only sections which appear in your input files.
For this example, let’s say that the code should be loaded at address 0x10000, and that the data should start at address 0x8000000. Here is a linker script which will do that:
SECTIONS { . = 0x10000; .text : { *(.text) } . = 0x8000000; .data : { *(.data) } .bss : { *(.bss) } }
You write the ‘SECTIONS’ command as the keyword ‘SECTIONS’, followed by a series of symbol assignments and output section descriptions enclosed in curly braces.
The first line inside the ‘SECTIONS’ command of the above example sets the value of the special symbol ‘.’, which is the location counter. If you do not specify the address of an output section in some other way (other ways are described later), the address is set from the current value of the location counter. The location counter is then incremented by the size of the output section. At the start of the ‘SECTIONS’ command, the location counter has the value ‘0’.
The second line defines an output section, ‘.text’. The colon is required syntax which may be ignored for now. Within the curly braces after the output section name, you list the names of the input sections which should be placed into this output section. The ‘*’ is a wildcard which matches any file name. The expression ‘*(.text)’ means all ‘.text’ input sections in all input files.
Since the location counter is ‘0x10000’ when the output section ‘.text’ is defined, the linker will set the address of the ‘.text’ section in the output file to be ‘0x10000’.
The remaining lines define the ‘.data’ and ‘.bss’ sections in the output file. The linker will place the ‘.data’ output section at address ‘0x8000000’. After the linker places the ‘.data’ output section, the value of the location counter will be ‘0x8000000’ plus the size of the ‘.data’ output section. The effect is that the linker will place the ‘.bss’ output section immediately after the ‘.data’ output section in memory.
The linker will ensure that each output section has the required alignment, by increasing the location counter if necessary. In this example, the specified addresses for the ‘.text’ and ‘.data’ sections will probably satisfy any alignment constraints, but the linker may have to create a small gap between the ‘.data’ and ‘.bss’ sections.
That’s it! That’s a simple and complete linker script.
Next: Assignments, Previous: Simple Example, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
In this section we describe the simple linker script commands.
• Entry Point | Setting the entry point | |
• File Commands | Commands dealing with files | |
• Format Commands | Commands dealing with object file formats | |
• REGION_ALIAS | Assign alias names to memory regions | |
• Miscellaneous Commands | Other linker script commands |
Next: File Commands, Up: Simple Commands [Contents][Index]
The first instruction to execute in a program is called the entry
point. You can use the ENTRY
linker script command to set the
entry point. The argument is a symbol name:
ENTRY(symbol)
There are several ways to set the entry point. The linker will set the entry point by trying each of the following methods in order, and stopping when one of them succeeds:
ENTRY(symbol)
command in a linker script;
start
, but PE- and BeOS-based systems for example
check a list of possible entry symbols, matching the first one found.
0
.
Next: Format Commands, Previous: Entry Point, Up: Simple Commands [Contents][Index]
Several linker script commands deal with files.
INCLUDE filename
Include the linker script filename at this point. The file will
be searched for in the current directory, and in any directory specified
with the -L option. You can nest calls to INCLUDE
up to
10 levels deep.
You can place INCLUDE
directives at the top level, in MEMORY
or
SECTIONS
commands, or in output section descriptions.
INPUT(file, file, …)
INPUT(file file …)
The INPUT
command directs the linker to include the named files
in the link, as though they were named on the command line.
For example, if you always want to include subr.o any time you do a link, but you can’t be bothered to put it on every link command line, then you can put ‘INPUT (subr.o)’ in your linker script.
In fact, if you like, you can list all of your input files in the linker script, and then invoke the linker with nothing but a ‘-T’ option.
In case a sysroot prefix is configured, and the filename starts
with the ‘/’ character, and the script being processed was
located inside the sysroot prefix, the filename will be looked
for in the sysroot prefix. The sysroot prefix can also be forced by specifying
=
as the first character in the filename path, or prefixing the
filename path with $SYSROOT
. See also the description of
‘-L’ in Command-line Options.
If a sysroot prefix is not used then the linker will try to open the file in the directory containing the linker script. If it is not found the linker will then search the current directory. If it is still not found the linker will search through the archive library search path.
If you use ‘INPUT (-lfile)’, ld
will transform the
name to libfile.a
, as with the command-line argument
‘-l’.
When you use the INPUT
command in an implicit linker script, the
files will be included in the link at the point at which the linker
script file is included. This can affect archive searching.
GROUP(file, file, …)
GROUP(file file …)
The GROUP
command is like INPUT
, except that the named
files should all be archives, and they are searched repeatedly until no
new undefined references are created. See the description of ‘-(’
in Command-line Options.
AS_NEEDED(file, file, …)
AS_NEEDED(file file …)
This construct can appear only inside of the INPUT
or GROUP
commands, among other filenames. The files listed will be handled
as if they appear directly in the INPUT
or GROUP
commands,
with the exception of ELF shared libraries, that will be added only
when they are actually needed. This construct essentially enables
--as-needed option for all the files listed inside of it
and restores previous --as-needed resp. --no-as-needed
setting afterwards.
OUTPUT(filename)
The OUTPUT
command names the output file. Using
OUTPUT(filename)
in the linker script is exactly like using
‘-o filename’ on the command line (see Command
Line Options). If both are used, the command-line option takes
precedence.
You can use the OUTPUT
command to define a default name for the
output file other than the usual default of a.out.
SEARCH_DIR(path)
The SEARCH_DIR
command adds path to the list of paths where
ld
looks for archive libraries. Using
SEARCH_DIR(path)
is exactly like using ‘-L path’
on the command line (see Command-line Options). If both
are used, then the linker will search both paths. Paths specified using
the command-line option are searched first.
STARTUP(filename)
The STARTUP
command is just like the INPUT
command, except
that filename will become the first input file to be linked, as
though it were specified first on the command line. This may be useful
when using a system in which the entry point is always the start of the
first file.
Next: REGION_ALIAS, Previous: File Commands, Up: Simple Commands [Contents][Index]
A couple of linker script commands deal with object file formats.
OUTPUT_FORMAT(bfdname)
OUTPUT_FORMAT(default, big, little)
The OUTPUT_FORMAT
command names the BFD format to use for the
output file (see BFD). Using OUTPUT_FORMAT(bfdname)
is
exactly like using ‘--oformat bfdname’ on the command line
(see Command-line Options). If both are used, the command
line option takes precedence.
You can use OUTPUT_FORMAT
with three arguments to use different
formats based on the ‘-EB’ and ‘-EL’ command-line options.
This permits the linker script to set the output format based on the
desired endianness.
If neither ‘-EB’ nor ‘-EL’ are used, then the output format will be the first argument, default. If ‘-EB’ is used, the output format will be the second argument, big. If ‘-EL’ is used, the output format will be the third argument, little.
For example, the default linker script for the MIPS ELF target uses this command:
OUTPUT_FORMAT(elf32-bigmips, elf32-bigmips, elf32-littlemips)
This says that the default format for the output file is ‘elf32-bigmips’, but if the user uses the ‘-EL’ command-line option, the output file will be created in the ‘elf32-littlemips’ format.
TARGET(bfdname)
The TARGET
command names the BFD format to use when reading input
files. It affects subsequent INPUT
and GROUP
commands.
This command is like using ‘-b bfdname’ on the command line
(see Command-line Options). If the TARGET
command
is used but OUTPUT_FORMAT
is not, then the last TARGET
command is also used to set the format for the output file. See BFD.
Next: Miscellaneous Commands, Previous: Format Commands, Up: Simple Commands [Contents][Index]
Alias names can be added to existing memory regions created with the MEMORY command. Each name corresponds to at most one memory region.
REGION_ALIAS(alias, region)
The REGION_ALIAS
function creates an alias name alias for the
memory region region. This allows a flexible mapping of output sections
to memory regions. An example follows.
Suppose we have an application for embedded systems which come with various
memory storage devices. All have a general purpose, volatile memory RAM
that allows code execution or data storage. Some may have a read-only,
non-volatile memory ROM
that allows code execution and read-only data
access. The last variant is a read-only, non-volatile memory ROM2
with
read-only data access and no code execution capability. We have four output
sections:
.text
program code;
.rodata
read-only data;
.data
read-write initialized data;
.bss
read-write zero initialized data.
The goal is to provide a linker command file that contains a system independent
part defining the output sections and a system dependent part mapping the
output sections to the memory regions available on the system. Our embedded
systems come with three different memory setups A
, B
and
C
:
Section | Variant A | Variant B | Variant C |
.text | RAM | ROM | ROM |
.rodata | RAM | ROM | ROM2 |
.data | RAM | RAM/ROM | RAM/ROM2 |
.bss | RAM | RAM | RAM |
The notation RAM/ROM
or RAM/ROM2
means that this section is
loaded into region ROM
or ROM2
respectively. Please note that
the load address of the .data
section starts in all three variants at
the end of the .rodata
section.
The base linker script that deals with the output sections follows. It
includes the system dependent linkcmds.memory
file that describes the
memory layout:
INCLUDE linkcmds.memory SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) } > REGION_TEXT .rodata : { *(.rodata) rodata_end = .; } > REGION_RODATA .data : AT (rodata_end) { data_start = .; *(.data) } > REGION_DATA data_size = SIZEOF(.data); data_load_start = LOADADDR(.data); .bss : { *(.bss) } > REGION_BSS }
Now we need three different linkcmds.memory
files to define memory
regions and alias names. The content of linkcmds.memory
for the three
variants A
, B
and C
:
A
Here everything goes into the RAM
.
MEMORY { RAM : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 4M } REGION_ALIAS("REGION_TEXT", RAM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_RODATA", RAM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_DATA", RAM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_BSS", RAM);
B
Program code and read-only data go into the ROM
. Read-write data goes
into the RAM
. An image of the initialized data is loaded into the
ROM
and will be copied during system start into the RAM
.
MEMORY { ROM : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 3M RAM : ORIGIN = 0x10000000, LENGTH = 1M } REGION_ALIAS("REGION_TEXT", ROM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_RODATA", ROM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_DATA", RAM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_BSS", RAM);
C
Program code goes into the ROM
. Read-only data goes into the
ROM2
. Read-write data goes into the RAM
. An image of the
initialized data is loaded into the ROM2
and will be copied during
system start into the RAM
.
MEMORY { ROM : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 2M ROM2 : ORIGIN = 0x10000000, LENGTH = 1M RAM : ORIGIN = 0x20000000, LENGTH = 1M } REGION_ALIAS("REGION_TEXT", ROM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_RODATA", ROM2); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_DATA", RAM); REGION_ALIAS("REGION_BSS", RAM);
It is possible to write a common system initialization routine to copy the
.data
section from ROM
or ROM2
into the RAM
if
necessary:
#include <string.h> extern char data_start []; extern char data_size []; extern char data_load_start []; void copy_data(void) { if (data_start != data_load_start) { memcpy(data_start, data_load_start, (size_t) data_size); } }
Previous: REGION_ALIAS, Up: Simple Commands [Contents][Index]
There are a few other linker scripts commands.
ASSERT(exp, message)
Ensure that exp is non-zero. If it is zero, then exit the linker with an error code, and print message.
Note that assertions are checked before the final stages of linking take place. This means that expressions involving symbols PROVIDEd inside section definitions will fail if the user has not set values for those symbols. The only exception to this rule is PROVIDEd symbols that just reference dot. Thus an assertion like this:
.stack : { PROVIDE (__stack = .); PROVIDE (__stack_size = 0x100); ASSERT ((__stack > (_end + __stack_size)), "Error: No room left for the stack"); }
will fail if __stack_size
is not defined elsewhere. Symbols
PROVIDEd outside of section definitions are evaluated earlier, so they
can be used inside ASSERTions. Thus:
PROVIDE (__stack_size = 0x100); .stack : { PROVIDE (__stack = .); ASSERT ((__stack > (_end + __stack_size)), "Error: No room left for the stack"); }
will work.
EXTERN(symbol symbol …)
Force symbol to be entered in the output file as an undefined
symbol. Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of additional
modules from standard libraries. You may list several symbols for
each EXTERN
, and you may use EXTERN
multiple times. This
command has the same effect as the ‘-u’ command-line option.
FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION
This command has the same effect as the ‘-d’ command-line option:
to make ld
assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable
output file is specified (‘-r’).
INHIBIT_COMMON_ALLOCATION
This command has the same effect as the ‘--no-define-common’
command-line option: to make ld
omit the assignment of addresses
to common symbols even for a non-relocatable output file.
FORCE_GROUP_ALLOCATION
This command has the same effect as the
‘--force-group-allocation’ command-line option: to make
ld
place section group members like normal input sections,
and to delete the section groups even if a relocatable output file is
specified (‘-r’).
INSERT [ AFTER | BEFORE ] output_section
This command is typically used in a script specified by ‘-T’ to
augment the default SECTIONS
with, for example, overlays. It
inserts all prior linker script statements after (or before)
output_section, and also causes ‘-T’ to not override the
default linker script. The exact insertion point is as for orphan
sections. See Location Counter. The insertion happens after the
linker has mapped input sections to output sections. Prior to the
insertion, since ‘-T’ scripts are parsed before the default
linker script, statements in the ‘-T’ script occur before the
default linker script statements in the internal linker representation
of the script. In particular, input section assignments will be made
to ‘-T’ output sections before those in the default script. Here
is an example of how a ‘-T’ script using INSERT
might look:
SECTIONS { OVERLAY : { .ov1 { ov1*(.text) } .ov2 { ov2*(.text) } } } INSERT AFTER .text;
NOCROSSREFS(section section …)
This command may be used to tell ld
to issue an error about any
references among certain output sections.
In certain types of programs, particularly on embedded systems when using overlays, when one section is loaded into memory, another section will not be. Any direct references between the two sections would be errors. For example, it would be an error if code in one section called a function defined in the other section.
The NOCROSSREFS
command takes a list of output section names. If
ld
detects any cross references between the sections, it reports
an error and returns a non-zero exit status. Note that the
NOCROSSREFS
command uses output section names, not input section
names.
NOCROSSREFS_TO(tosection fromsection …)
This command may be used to tell ld
to issue an error about any
references to one section from a list of other sections.
The NOCROSSREFS
command is useful when ensuring that two or more
output sections are entirely independent but there are situations where
a one-way dependency is needed. For example, in a multi-core application
there may be shared code that can be called from each core but for safety
must never call back.
The NOCROSSREFS_TO
command takes a list of output section names.
The first section can not be referenced from any of the other sections.
If ld
detects any references to the first section from any of
the other sections, it reports an error and returns a non-zero exit
status. Note that the NOCROSSREFS_TO
command uses output section
names, not input section names.
OUTPUT_ARCH(bfdarch)
Specify a particular output machine architecture. The argument is one
of the names used by the BFD library (see BFD). You can see the
architecture of an object file by using the objdump
program with
the ‘-f’ option.
LD_FEATURE(string)
This command may be used to modify ld
behavior. If
string is "SANE_EXPR"
then absolute symbols and numbers
in a script are simply treated as numbers everywhere.
See Expression Section.
Next: SECTIONS, Previous: Simple Commands, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
You may assign a value to a symbol in a linker script. This will define the symbol and place it into the symbol table with a global scope.
• Simple Assignments | Simple Assignments | |
• HIDDEN | HIDDEN | |
• PROVIDE | PROVIDE | |
• PROVIDE_HIDDEN | PROVIDE_HIDDEN | |
• Source Code Reference | How to use a linker script defined symbol in source code |
Next: HIDDEN, Up: Assignments [Contents][Index]
You may assign to a symbol using any of the C assignment operators:
symbol = expression ;
symbol += expression ;
symbol -= expression ;
symbol *= expression ;
symbol /= expression ;
symbol <<= expression ;
symbol >>= expression ;
symbol &= expression ;
symbol |= expression ;
The first case will define symbol to the value of expression. In the other cases, symbol must already be defined, and the value will be adjusted accordingly.
The special symbol name ‘.’ indicates the location counter. You
may only use this within a SECTIONS
command. See Location Counter.
The semicolon after expression is required.
Expressions are defined below; see Expressions.
You may write symbol assignments as commands in their own right, or as
statements within a SECTIONS
command, or as part of an output
section description in a SECTIONS
command.
The section of the symbol will be set from the section of the expression; for more information, see Expression Section.
Here is an example showing the three different places that symbol assignments may be used:
floating_point = 0; SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) _etext = .; } _bdata = (. + 3) & ~ 3; .data : { *(.data) } }
In this example, the symbol ‘floating_point’ will be defined as zero. The symbol ‘_etext’ will be defined as the address following the last ‘.text’ input section. The symbol ‘_bdata’ will be defined as the address following the ‘.text’ output section aligned upward to a 4 byte boundary.
Next: PROVIDE, Previous: Simple Assignments, Up: Assignments [Contents][Index]
For ELF targeted ports, define a symbol that will be hidden and won’t be
exported. The syntax is HIDDEN(symbol = expression)
.
Here is the example from Simple Assignments, rewritten to use
HIDDEN
:
HIDDEN(floating_point = 0); SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) HIDDEN(_etext = .); } HIDDEN(_bdata = (. + 3) & ~ 3); .data : { *(.data) } }
In this case none of the three symbols will be visible outside this module.
Next: PROVIDE_HIDDEN, Previous: HIDDEN, Up: Assignments [Contents][Index]
In some cases, it is desirable for a linker script to define a symbol
only if it is referenced and is not defined by any object included in
the link. For example, traditional linkers defined the symbol
‘etext’. However, ANSI C requires that the user be able to use
‘etext’ as a function name without encountering an error. The
PROVIDE
keyword may be used to define a symbol, such as
‘etext’, only if it is referenced but not defined. The syntax is
PROVIDE(symbol = expression)
.
Here is an example of using PROVIDE
to define ‘etext’:
SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) _etext = .; PROVIDE(etext = .); } }
In this example, if the program defines ‘_etext’ (with a leading underscore), the linker will give a multiple definition diagnostic. If, on the other hand, the program defines ‘etext’ (with no leading underscore), the linker will silently use the definition in the program. If the program references ‘etext’ but does not define it, the linker will use the definition in the linker script.
Note - the PROVIDE
directive considers a common symbol to be
defined, even though such a symbol could be combined with the symbol
that the PROVIDE
would create. This is particularly important
when considering constructor and destructor list symbols such as
‘__CTOR_LIST__’ as these are often defined as common symbols.
Next: Source Code Reference, Previous: PROVIDE, Up: Assignments [Contents][Index]
Similar to PROVIDE
. For ELF targeted ports, the symbol will be
hidden and won’t be exported.
Previous: PROVIDE_HIDDEN, Up: Assignments [Contents][Index]
Accessing a linker script defined variable from source code is not intuitive. In particular a linker script symbol is not equivalent to a variable declaration in a high level language, it is instead a symbol that does not have a value.
Before going further, it is important to note that compilers often transform names in the source code into different names when they are stored in the symbol table. For example, Fortran compilers commonly prepend or append an underscore, and C++ performs extensive ‘name mangling’. Therefore there might be a discrepancy between the name of a variable as it is used in source code and the name of the same variable as it is defined in a linker script. For example in C a linker script variable might be referred to as:
extern int foo;
But in the linker script it might be defined as:
_foo = 1000;
In the remaining examples however it is assumed that no name transformation has taken place.
When a symbol is declared in a high level language such as C, two things happen. The first is that the compiler reserves enough space in the program’s memory to hold the value of the symbol. The second is that the compiler creates an entry in the program’s symbol table which holds the symbol’s address. ie the symbol table contains the address of the block of memory holding the symbol’s value. So for example the following C declaration, at file scope:
int foo = 1000;
creates an entry called ‘foo’ in the symbol table. This entry holds the address of an ‘int’ sized block of memory where the number 1000 is initially stored.
When a program references a symbol the compiler generates code that first accesses the symbol table to find the address of the symbol’s memory block and then code to read the value from that memory block. So:
foo = 1;
looks up the symbol ‘foo’ in the symbol table, gets the address associated with this symbol and then writes the value 1 into that address. Whereas:
int * a = & foo;
looks up the symbol ‘foo’ in the symbol table, gets its address and then copies this address into the block of memory associated with the variable ‘a’.
Linker scripts symbol declarations, by contrast, create an entry in the symbol table but do not assign any memory to them. Thus they are an address without a value. So for example the linker script definition:
foo = 1000;
creates an entry in the symbol table called ‘foo’ which holds the address of memory location 1000, but nothing special is stored at address 1000. This means that you cannot access the value of a linker script defined symbol - it has no value - all you can do is access the address of a linker script defined symbol.
Hence when you are using a linker script defined symbol in source code you should always take the address of the symbol, and never attempt to use its value. For example suppose you want to copy the contents of a section of memory called .ROM into a section called .FLASH and the linker script contains these declarations:
start_of_ROM = .ROM; end_of_ROM = .ROM + sizeof (.ROM); start_of_FLASH = .FLASH;
Then the C source code to perform the copy would be:
extern char start_of_ROM, end_of_ROM, start_of_FLASH; memcpy (& start_of_FLASH, & start_of_ROM, & end_of_ROM - & start_of_ROM);
Note the use of the ‘&’ operators. These are correct. Alternatively the symbols can be treated as the names of vectors or arrays and then the code will again work as expected:
extern char start_of_ROM[], end_of_ROM[], start_of_FLASH[]; memcpy (start_of_FLASH, start_of_ROM, end_of_ROM - start_of_ROM);
Note how using this method does not require the use of ‘&’ operators.
Next: MEMORY, Previous: Assignments, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
The SECTIONS
command tells the linker how to map input sections
into output sections, and how to place the output sections in memory.
The format of the SECTIONS
command is:
SECTIONS { sections-command sections-command … }
Each sections-command may of be one of the following:
ENTRY
command (see Entry command)
The ENTRY
command and symbol assignments are permitted inside the
SECTIONS
command for convenience in using the location counter in
those commands. This can also make the linker script easier to
understand because you can use those commands at meaningful points in
the layout of the output file.
Output section descriptions and overlay descriptions are described below.
If you do not use a SECTIONS
command in your linker script, the
linker will place each input section into an identically named output
section in the order that the sections are first encountered in the
input files. If all input sections are present in the first file, for
example, the order of sections in the output file will match the order
in the first input file. The first section will be at address zero.
• Output Section Description | Output section description | |
• Output Section Name | Output section name | |
• Output Section Address | Output section address | |
• Input Section | Input section description | |
• Output Section Data | Output section data | |
• Output Section Keywords | Output section keywords | |
• Output Section Discarding | Output section discarding | |
• Output Section Attributes | Output section attributes | |
• Overlay Description | Overlay description |
Next: Output Section Name, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
The full description of an output section looks like this:
section [address] [(type)] : [AT(lma)] [ALIGN(section_align) | ALIGN_WITH_INPUT] [SUBALIGN(subsection_align)] [constraint] { output-section-command output-section-command … } [>region] [AT>lma_region] [:phdr :phdr …] [=fillexp] [,]
Most output sections do not use most of the optional section attributes.
The whitespace around section is required, so that the section name is unambiguous. The colon and the curly braces are also required. The comma at the end may be required if a fillexp is used and the next sections-command looks like a continuation of the expression. The line breaks and other white space are optional.
Each output-section-command may be one of the following:
Next: Output Section Address, Previous: Output Section Description, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
The name of the output section is section. section must
meet the constraints of your output format. In formats which only
support a limited number of sections, such as a.out
, the name
must be one of the names supported by the format (a.out
, for
example, allows only ‘.text’, ‘.data’ or ‘.bss’). If the
output format supports any number of sections, but with numbers and not
names (as is the case for Oasys), the name should be supplied as a
quoted numeric string. A section name may consist of any sequence of
characters, but a name which contains any unusual characters such as
commas must be quoted.
The output section name ‘/DISCARD/’ is special; Output Section Discarding.
Next: Input Section, Previous: Output Section Name, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
The address is an expression for the VMA (the virtual memory address) of the output section. This address is optional, but if it is provided then the output address will be set exactly as specified.
If the output address is not specified then one will be chosen for the section, based on the heuristic below. This address will be adjusted to fit the alignment requirement of the output section. The alignment requirement is the strictest alignment of any input section contained within the output section.
The output section address heuristic is as follows:
For example:
.text . : { *(.text) }
and
.text : { *(.text) }
are subtly different. The first will set the address of the ‘.text’ output section to the current value of the location counter. The second will set it to the current value of the location counter aligned to the strictest alignment of any of the ‘.text’ input sections.
The address may be an arbitrary expression; Expressions. For example, if you want to align the section on a 0x10 byte boundary, so that the lowest four bits of the section address are zero, you could do something like this:
.text ALIGN(0x10) : { *(.text) }
This works because ALIGN
returns the current location counter
aligned upward to the specified value.
Specifying address for a section will change the value of the location counter, provided that the section is non-empty. (Empty sections are ignored).
Next: Output Section Data, Previous: Output Section Address, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
The most common output section command is an input section description.
The input section description is the most basic linker script operation. You use output sections to tell the linker how to lay out your program in memory. You use input section descriptions to tell the linker how to map the input files into your memory layout.
• Input Section Basics | Input section basics | |
• Input Section Wildcards | Input section wildcard patterns | |
• Input Section Common | Input section for common symbols | |
• Input Section Keep | Input section and garbage collection | |
• Input Section Example | Input section example |
Next: Input Section Wildcards, Up: Input Section [Contents][Index]
An input section description consists of a file name optionally followed by a list of section names in parentheses.
The file name and the section name may be wildcard patterns, which we describe further below (see Input Section Wildcards).
The most common input section description is to include all input sections with a particular name in the output section. For example, to include all input ‘.text’ sections, you would write:
*(.text)
Here the ‘*’ is a wildcard which matches any file name. To exclude a list of files from matching the file name wildcard, EXCLUDE_FILE may be used to match all files except the ones specified in the EXCLUDE_FILE list. For example:
EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *otherfile.o) *(.ctors)
will cause all .ctors sections from all files except crtend.o and otherfile.o to be included. The EXCLUDE_FILE can also be placed inside the section list, for example:
*(EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *otherfile.o) .ctors)
The result of this is identically to the previous example. Supporting two syntaxes for EXCLUDE_FILE is useful if the section list contains more than one section, as described below.
There are two ways to include more than one section:
*(.text .rdata) *(.text) *(.rdata)
The difference between these is the order in which the ‘.text’ and ‘.rdata’ input sections will appear in the output section. In the first example, they will be intermingled, appearing in the same order as they are found in the linker input. In the second example, all ‘.text’ input sections will appear first, followed by all ‘.rdata’ input sections.
When using EXCLUDE_FILE with more than one section, if the exclusion is within the section list then the exclusion only applies to the immediately following section, for example:
*(EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) .text .rdata)
will cause all ‘.text’ sections from all files except somefile.o to be included, while all ‘.rdata’ sections from all files, including somefile.o, will be included. To exclude the ‘.rdata’ sections from somefile.o the example could be modified to:
*(EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) .text EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) .rdata)
Alternatively, placing the EXCLUDE_FILE outside of the section list, before the input file selection, will cause the exclusion to apply for all sections. Thus the previous example can be rewritten as:
EXCLUDE_FILE (*somefile.o) *(.text .rdata)
You can specify a file name to include sections from a particular file. You would do this if one or more of your files contain special data that needs to be at a particular location in memory. For example:
data.o(.data)
To refine the sections that are included based on the section flags of an input section, INPUT_SECTION_FLAGS may be used.
Here is a simple example for using Section header flags for ELF sections:
SECTIONS { .text : { INPUT_SECTION_FLAGS (SHF_MERGE & SHF_STRINGS) *(.text) } .text2 : { INPUT_SECTION_FLAGS (!SHF_WRITE) *(.text) } }
In this example, the output section ‘.text’ will be comprised of any
input section matching the name *(.text) whose section header flags
SHF_MERGE
and SHF_STRINGS
are set. The output section
‘.text2’ will be comprised of any input section matching the name *(.text)
whose section header flag SHF_WRITE
is clear.
You can also specify files within archives by writing a pattern matching the archive, a colon, then the pattern matching the file, with no whitespace around the colon.
matches file within archive
matches the whole archive
matches file but not one in an archive
Either one or both of ‘archive’ and ‘file’ can contain shell
wildcards. On DOS based file systems, the linker will assume that a
single letter followed by a colon is a drive specifier, so
‘c:myfile.o’ is a simple file specification, not ‘myfile.o’
within an archive called ‘c’. ‘archive:file’ filespecs may
also be used within an EXCLUDE_FILE
list, but may not appear in
other linker script contexts. For instance, you cannot extract a file
from an archive by using ‘archive:file’ in an INPUT
command.
If you use a file name without a list of sections, then all sections in the input file will be included in the output section. This is not commonly done, but it may by useful on occasion. For example:
data.o
When you use a file name which is not an ‘archive:file’ specifier
and does not contain any wild card
characters, the linker will first see if you also specified the file
name on the linker command line or in an INPUT
command. If you
did not, the linker will attempt to open the file as an input file, as
though it appeared on the command line. Note that this differs from an
INPUT
command, because the linker will not search for the file in
the archive search path.
Next: Input Section Common, Previous: Input Section Basics, Up: Input Section [Contents][Index]
In an input section description, either the file name or the section name or both may be wildcard patterns.
The file name of ‘*’ seen in many examples is a simple wildcard pattern for the file name.
The wildcard patterns are like those used by the Unix shell.
matches any number of characters
matches any single character
matches a single instance of any of the chars; the ‘-’ character may be used to specify a range of characters, as in ‘[a-z]’ to match any lower case letter
quotes the following character
When a file name is matched with a wildcard, the wildcard characters will not match a ‘/’ character (used to separate directory names on Unix). A pattern consisting of a single ‘*’ character is an exception; it will always match any file name, whether it contains a ‘/’ or not. In a section name, the wildcard characters will match a ‘/’ character.
File name wildcard patterns only match files which are explicitly
specified on the command line or in an INPUT
command. The linker
does not search directories to expand wildcards.
If a file name matches more than one wildcard pattern, or if a file name appears explicitly and is also matched by a wildcard pattern, the linker will use the first match in the linker script. For example, this sequence of input section descriptions is probably in error, because the data.o rule will not be used:
.data : { *(.data) } .data1 : { data.o(.data) }
Normally, the linker will place files and sections matched by wildcards
in the order in which they are seen during the link. You can change
this by using the SORT_BY_NAME
keyword, which appears before a wildcard
pattern in parentheses (e.g., SORT_BY_NAME(.text*)
). When the
SORT_BY_NAME
keyword is used, the linker will sort the files or sections
into ascending order by name before placing them in the output file.
SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
is similar to SORT_BY_NAME
.
SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
will sort sections into descending order of
alignment before placing them in the output file. Placing larger
alignments before smaller alignments can reduce the amount of padding
needed.
SORT_BY_INIT_PRIORITY
is also similar to SORT_BY_NAME
.
SORT_BY_INIT_PRIORITY
will sort sections into ascending
numerical order of the GCC init_priority attribute encoded in the
section name before placing them in the output file. In
.init_array.NNNNN
and .fini_array.NNNNN
, NNNNN
is
the init_priority. In .ctors.NNNNN
and .dtors.NNNNN
,
NNNNN
is 65535 minus the init_priority.
SORT
is an alias for SORT_BY_NAME
.
When there are nested section sorting commands in linker script, there can be at most 1 level of nesting for section sorting commands.
SORT_BY_NAME
(SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(wildcard section pattern)).
It will sort the input sections by name first, then by alignment if two
sections have the same name.
SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(SORT_BY_NAME
(wildcard section pattern)).
It will sort the input sections by alignment first, then by name if two
sections have the same alignment.
SORT_BY_NAME
(SORT_BY_NAME
(wildcard section pattern)) is
treated the same as SORT_BY_NAME
(wildcard section pattern).
SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(wildcard section pattern))
is treated the same as SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(wildcard section pattern).
When both command-line section sorting option and linker script section sorting command are used, section sorting command always takes precedence over the command-line option.
If the section sorting command in linker script isn’t nested, the command-line option will make the section sorting command to be treated as nested sorting command.
SORT_BY_NAME
(wildcard section pattern ) with
--sort-sections alignment is equivalent to
SORT_BY_NAME
(SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(wildcard section pattern)).
SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(wildcard section pattern) with
--sort-section name is equivalent to
SORT_BY_ALIGNMENT
(SORT_BY_NAME
(wildcard section pattern)).
If the section sorting command in linker script is nested, the command-line option will be ignored.
SORT_NONE
disables section sorting by ignoring the command-line
section sorting option.
If you ever get confused about where input sections are going, use the ‘-M’ linker option to generate a map file. The map file shows precisely how input sections are mapped to output sections.
This example shows how wildcard patterns might be used to partition files. This linker script directs the linker to place all ‘.text’ sections in ‘.text’ and all ‘.bss’ sections in ‘.bss’. The linker will place the ‘.data’ section from all files beginning with an upper case character in ‘.DATA’; for all other files, the linker will place the ‘.data’ section in ‘.data’.
SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) } .DATA : { [A-Z]*(.data) } .data : { *(.data) } .bss : { *(.bss) } }
Next: Input Section Keep, Previous: Input Section Wildcards, Up: Input Section [Contents][Index]
A special notation is needed for common symbols, because in many object file formats common symbols do not have a particular input section. The linker treats common symbols as though they are in an input section named ‘COMMON’.
You may use file names with the ‘COMMON’ section just as with any other input sections. You can use this to place common symbols from a particular input file in one section while common symbols from other input files are placed in another section.
In most cases, common symbols in input files will be placed in the ‘.bss’ section in the output file. For example:
.bss { *(.bss) *(COMMON) }
Some object file formats have more than one type of common symbol. For example, the MIPS ELF object file format distinguishes standard common symbols and small common symbols. In this case, the linker will use a different special section name for other types of common symbols. In the case of MIPS ELF, the linker uses ‘COMMON’ for standard common symbols and ‘.scommon’ for small common symbols. This permits you to map the different types of common symbols into memory at different locations.
You will sometimes see ‘[COMMON]’ in old linker scripts. This notation is now considered obsolete. It is equivalent to ‘*(COMMON)’.
Next: Input Section Example, Previous: Input Section Common, Up: Input Section [Contents][Index]
When link-time garbage collection is in use (‘--gc-sections’),
it is often useful to mark sections that should not be eliminated.
This is accomplished by surrounding an input section’s wildcard entry
with KEEP()
, as in KEEP(*(.init))
or
KEEP(SORT_BY_NAME(*)(.ctors))
.
Previous: Input Section Keep, Up: Input Section [Contents][Index]
The following example is a complete linker script. It tells the linker to read all of the sections from file all.o and place them at the start of output section ‘outputa’ which starts at location ‘0x10000’. All of section ‘.input1’ from file foo.o follows immediately, in the same output section. All of section ‘.input2’ from foo.o goes into output section ‘outputb’, followed by section ‘.input1’ from foo1.o. All of the remaining ‘.input1’ and ‘.input2’ sections from any files are written to output section ‘outputc’.
SECTIONS { outputa 0x10000 : { all.o foo.o (.input1) }
outputb : { foo.o (.input2) foo1.o (.input1) }
outputc : { *(.input1) *(.input2) } }
If an output section’s name is the same as the input section’s name and is representable as a C identifier, then the linker will automatically see PROVIDE two symbols: __start_SECNAME and __stop_SECNAME, where SECNAME is the name of the section. These indicate the start address and end address of the output section respectively. Note: most section names are not representable as C identifiers because they contain a ‘.’ character.
Next: Output Section Keywords, Previous: Input Section, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
You can include explicit bytes of data in an output section by using
BYTE
, SHORT
, LONG
, QUAD
, or SQUAD
as
an output section command. Each keyword is followed by an expression in
parentheses providing the value to store (see Expressions). The
value of the expression is stored at the current value of the location
counter.
The BYTE
, SHORT
, LONG
, and QUAD
commands
store one, two, four, and eight bytes (respectively). After storing the
bytes, the location counter is incremented by the number of bytes
stored.
For example, this will store the byte 1 followed by the four byte value of the symbol ‘addr’:
BYTE(1) LONG(addr)
When using a 64 bit host or target, QUAD
and SQUAD
are the
same; they both store an 8 byte, or 64 bit, value. When both host and
target are 32 bits, an expression is computed as 32 bits. In this case
QUAD
stores a 32 bit value zero extended to 64 bits, and
SQUAD
stores a 32 bit value sign extended to 64 bits.
If the object file format of the output file has an explicit endianness, which is the normal case, the value will be stored in that endianness. When the object file format does not have an explicit endianness, as is true of, for example, S-records, the value will be stored in the endianness of the first input object file.
Note—these commands only work inside a section description and not between them, so the following will produce an error from the linker:
SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) } LONG(1) .data : { *(.data) } }
whereas this will work:
SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) ; LONG(1) } .data : { *(.data) } }
You may use the FILL
command to set the fill pattern for the
current section. It is followed by an expression in parentheses. Any
otherwise unspecified regions of memory within the section (for example,
gaps left due to the required alignment of input sections) are filled
with the value of the expression, repeated as
necessary. A FILL
statement covers memory locations after the
point at which it occurs in the section definition; by including more
than one FILL
statement, you can have different fill patterns in
different parts of an output section.
This example shows how to fill unspecified regions of memory with the value ‘0x90’:
FILL(0x90909090)
The FILL
command is similar to the ‘=fillexp’ output
section attribute, but it only affects the
part of the section following the FILL
command, rather than the
entire section. If both are used, the FILL
command takes
precedence. See Output Section Fill, for details on the fill
expression.
Next: Output Section Discarding, Previous: Output Section Data, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
There are a couple of keywords which can appear as output section commands.
CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
The command tells the linker to create a symbol for each input file.
The name of each symbol will be the name of the corresponding input
file. The section of each symbol will be the output section in which
the CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
command appears.
This is conventional for the a.out object file format. It is not normally used for any other object file format.
CONSTRUCTORS
When linking using the a.out object file format, the linker uses an
unusual set construct to support C++ global constructors and
destructors. When linking object file formats which do not support
arbitrary sections, such as ECOFF and XCOFF, the linker will
automatically recognize C++ global constructors and destructors by name.
For these object file formats, the CONSTRUCTORS
command tells the
linker to place constructor information in the output section where the
CONSTRUCTORS
command appears. The CONSTRUCTORS
command is
ignored for other object file formats.
The symbol __CTOR_LIST__
marks the start of the global
constructors, and the symbol __CTOR_END__
marks the end.
Similarly, __DTOR_LIST__
and __DTOR_END__
mark
the start and end of the global destructors. The
first word in the list is the number of entries, followed by the address
of each constructor or destructor, followed by a zero word. The
compiler must arrange to actually run the code. For these object file
formats GNU C++ normally calls constructors from a subroutine
__main
; a call to __main
is automatically inserted into
the startup code for main
. GNU C++ normally runs
destructors either by using atexit
, or directly from the function
exit
.
For object file formats such as COFF
or ELF
which support
arbitrary section names, GNU C++ will normally arrange to put the
addresses of global constructors and destructors into the .ctors
and .dtors
sections. Placing the following sequence into your
linker script will build the sort of table which the GNU C++
runtime code expects to see.
__CTOR_LIST__ = .; LONG((__CTOR_END__ - __CTOR_LIST__) / 4 - 2) *(.ctors) LONG(0) __CTOR_END__ = .; __DTOR_LIST__ = .; LONG((__DTOR_END__ - __DTOR_LIST__) / 4 - 2) *(.dtors) LONG(0) __DTOR_END__ = .;
If you are using the GNU C++ support for initialization priority,
which provides some control over the order in which global constructors
are run, you must sort the constructors at link time to ensure that they
are executed in the correct order. When using the CONSTRUCTORS
command, use ‘SORT_BY_NAME(CONSTRUCTORS)’ instead. When using the
.ctors
and .dtors
sections, use ‘*(SORT_BY_NAME(.ctors))’ and
‘*(SORT_BY_NAME(.dtors))’ instead of just ‘*(.ctors)’ and
‘*(.dtors)’.
Normally the compiler and linker will handle these issues automatically, and you will not need to concern yourself with them. However, you may need to consider this if you are using C++ and writing your own linker scripts.
Next: Output Section Attributes, Previous: Output Section Keywords, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
The linker will not normally create output sections with no contents. This is for convenience when referring to input sections that may or may not be present in any of the input files. For example:
.foo : { *(.foo) }
will only create a ‘.foo’ section in the output file if there is a ‘.foo’ section in at least one input file, and if the input sections are not all empty. Other link script directives that allocate space in an output section will also create the output section. So too will assignments to dot even if the assignment does not create space, except for ‘. = 0’, ‘. = . + 0’, ‘. = sym’, ‘. = . + sym’ and ‘. = ALIGN (. != 0, expr, 1)’ when ‘sym’ is an absolute symbol of value 0 defined in the script. This allows you to force output of an empty section with ‘. = .’.
The linker will ignore address assignments (see Output Section Address) on discarded output sections, except when the linker script defines symbols in the output section. In that case the linker will obey the address assignments, possibly advancing dot even though the section is discarded.
The special output section name ‘/DISCARD/’ may be used to discard input sections. Any input sections which are assigned to an output section named ‘/DISCARD/’ are not included in the output file.
This can be used to discard input sections marked with the ELF flag
SHF_GNU_RETAIN
, which would otherwise have been saved from linker
garbage collection.
Note, sections that match the ‘/DISCARD/’ output section will be discarded even if they are in an ELF section group which has other members which are not being discarded. This is deliberate. Discarding takes precedence over grouping.
Next: Overlay Description, Previous: Output Section Discarding, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
We showed above that the full description of an output section looked like this:
section [address] [(type)] : [AT(lma)] [ALIGN(section_align) | ALIGN_WITH_INPUT] [SUBALIGN(subsection_align)] [constraint] { output-section-command output-section-command … } [>region] [AT>lma_region] [:phdr :phdr …] [=fillexp]
We’ve already described section, address, and output-section-command. In this section we will describe the remaining section attributes.
• Output Section Type | Output section type | |
• Output Section LMA | Output section LMA | |
• Forced Output Alignment | Forced Output Alignment | |
• Forced Input Alignment | Forced Input Alignment | |
• Output Section Constraint | Output section constraint | |
• Output Section Region | Output section region | |
• Output Section Phdr | Output section phdr | |
• Output Section Fill | Output section fill |
Next: Output Section LMA, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
Each output section may have a type. The type is a keyword in parentheses. The following types are defined:
NOLOAD
The section should be marked as not loadable, so that it will not be loaded into memory when the program is run.
DSECT
COPY
INFO
OVERLAY
These type names are supported for backward compatibility, and are rarely used. They all have the same effect: the section should be marked as not allocatable, so that no memory is allocated for the section when the program is run.
The linker normally sets the attributes of an output section based on the input sections which map into it. You can override this by using the section type. For example, in the script sample below, the ‘ROM’ section is addressed at memory location ‘0’ and does not need to be loaded when the program is run.
SECTIONS { ROM 0 (NOLOAD) : { … } … }
Next: Forced Output Alignment, Previous: Output Section Type, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
Every section has a virtual address (VMA) and a load address (LMA); see
Basic Script Concepts. The virtual address is specified by the
see Output Section Address described earlier. The load address is
specified by the AT
or AT>
keywords. Specifying a load
address is optional.
The AT
keyword takes an expression as an argument. This
specifies the exact load address of the section. The AT>
keyword
takes the name of a memory region as an argument. See MEMORY. The
load address of the section is set to the next free address in the
region, aligned to the section’s alignment requirements.
If neither AT
nor AT>
is specified for an allocatable
section, the linker will use the following heuristic to determine the
load address:
This feature is designed to make it easy to build a ROM image. For
example, the following linker script creates three output sections: one
called ‘.text’, which starts at 0x1000
, one called
‘.mdata’, which is loaded at the end of the ‘.text’ section
even though its VMA is 0x2000
, and one called ‘.bss’ to hold
uninitialized data at address 0x3000
. The symbol _data
is
defined with the value 0x2000
, which shows that the location
counter holds the VMA value, not the LMA value.
SECTIONS { .text 0x1000 : { *(.text) _etext = . ; } .mdata 0x2000 : AT ( ADDR (.text) + SIZEOF (.text) ) { _data = . ; *(.data); _edata = . ; } .bss 0x3000 : { _bstart = . ; *(.bss) *(COMMON) ; _bend = . ;} }
The run-time initialization code for use with a program generated with this linker script would include something like the following, to copy the initialized data from the ROM image to its runtime address. Notice how this code takes advantage of the symbols defined by the linker script.
extern char _etext, _data, _edata, _bstart, _bend; char *src = &_etext; char *dst = &_data; /* ROM has data at end of text; copy it. */ while (dst < &_edata) *dst++ = *src++; /* Zero bss. */ for (dst = &_bstart; dst< &_bend; dst++) *dst = 0;
Next: Forced Input Alignment, Previous: Output Section LMA, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
You can increase an output section’s alignment by using ALIGN. As an alternative you can enforce that the difference between the VMA and LMA remains intact throughout this output section with the ALIGN_WITH_INPUT attribute.
Next: Output Section Constraint, Previous: Forced Output Alignment, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
You can force input section alignment within an output section by using SUBALIGN. The value specified overrides any alignment given by input sections, whether larger or smaller.
Next: Output Section Region, Previous: Forced Input Alignment, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
You can specify that an output section should only be created if all
of its input sections are read-only or all of its input sections are
read-write by using the keyword ONLY_IF_RO
and
ONLY_IF_RW
respectively.
Next: Output Section Phdr, Previous: Output Section Constraint, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
You can assign a section to a previously defined region of memory by using ‘>region’. See MEMORY.
Here is a simple example:
MEMORY { rom : ORIGIN = 0x1000, LENGTH = 0x1000 } SECTIONS { ROM : { *(.text) } >rom }
Next: Output Section Fill, Previous: Output Section Region, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
You can assign a section to a previously defined program segment by
using ‘:phdr’. See PHDRS. If a section is assigned to
one or more segments, then all subsequent allocated sections will be
assigned to those segments as well, unless they use an explicitly
:phdr
modifier. You can use :NONE
to tell the
linker to not put the section in any segment at all.
Here is a simple example:
PHDRS { text PT_LOAD ; } SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) } :text }
Previous: Output Section Phdr, Up: Output Section Attributes [Contents][Index]
You can set the fill pattern for an entire section by using
‘=fillexp’. fillexp is an expression
(see Expressions). Any otherwise unspecified regions of memory
within the output section (for example, gaps left due to the required
alignment of input sections) will be filled with the value, repeated as
necessary. If the fill expression is a simple hex number, ie. a string
of hex digit starting with ‘0x’ and without a trailing ‘k’ or ‘M’, then
an arbitrarily long sequence of hex digits can be used to specify the
fill pattern; Leading zeros become part of the pattern too. For all
other cases, including extra parentheses or a unary +
, the fill
pattern is the four least significant bytes of the value of the
expression. In all cases, the number is big-endian.
You can also change the fill value with a FILL
command in the
output section commands; (see Output Section Data).
Here is a simple example:
SECTIONS { .text : { *(.text) } =0x90909090 }
Previous: Output Section Attributes, Up: SECTIONS [Contents][Index]
An overlay description provides an easy way to describe sections which are to be loaded as part of a single memory image but are to be run at the same memory address. At run time, some sort of overlay manager will copy the overlaid sections in and out of the runtime memory address as required, perhaps by simply manipulating addressing bits. This approach can be useful, for example, when a certain region of memory is faster than another.
Overlays are described using the OVERLAY
command. The
OVERLAY
command is used within a SECTIONS
command, like an
output section description. The full syntax of the OVERLAY
command is as follows:
OVERLAY [start] : [NOCROSSREFS] [AT ( ldaddr )] { secname1 { output-section-command output-section-command … } [:phdr…] [=fill] secname2 { output-section-command output-section-command … } [:phdr…] [=fill] … } [>region] [:phdr…] [=fill] [,]
Everything is optional except OVERLAY
(a keyword), and each
section must have a name (secname1 and secname2 above). The
section definitions within the OVERLAY
construct are identical to
those within the general SECTIONS
construct (see SECTIONS),
except that no addresses and no memory regions may be defined for
sections within an OVERLAY
.
The comma at the end may be required if a fill is used and the next sections-command looks like a continuation of the expression.
The sections are all defined with the same starting address. The load
addresses of the sections are arranged such that they are consecutive in
memory starting at the load address used for the OVERLAY
as a
whole (as with normal section definitions, the load address is optional,
and defaults to the start address; the start address is also optional,
and defaults to the current value of the location counter).
If the NOCROSSREFS
keyword is used, and there are any
references among the sections, the linker will report an error. Since
the sections all run at the same address, it normally does not make
sense for one section to refer directly to another.
See NOCROSSREFS.
For each section within the OVERLAY
, the linker automatically
provides two symbols. The symbol __load_start_secname
is
defined as the starting load address of the section. The symbol
__load_stop_secname
is defined as the final load address of
the section. Any characters within secname which are not legal
within C identifiers are removed. C (or assembler) code may use these
symbols to move the overlaid sections around as necessary.
At the end of the overlay, the value of the location counter is set to the start address of the overlay plus the size of the largest section.
Here is an example. Remember that this would appear inside a
SECTIONS
construct.
OVERLAY 0x1000 : AT (0x4000) { .text0 { o1/*.o(.text) } .text1 { o2/*.o(.text) } }
This will define both ‘.text0’ and ‘.text1’ to start at
address 0x1000. ‘.text0’ will be loaded at address 0x4000, and
‘.text1’ will be loaded immediately after ‘.text0’. The
following symbols will be defined if referenced: __load_start_text0
,
__load_stop_text0
, __load_start_text1
,
__load_stop_text1
.
C code to copy overlay .text1
into the overlay area might look
like the following.
extern char __load_start_text1, __load_stop_text1; memcpy ((char *) 0x1000, &__load_start_text1, &__load_stop_text1 - &__load_start_text1);
Note that the OVERLAY
command is just syntactic sugar, since
everything it does can be done using the more basic commands. The above
example could have been written identically as follows.
.text0 0x1000 : AT (0x4000) { o1/*.o(.text) } PROVIDE (__load_start_text0 = LOADADDR (.text0)); PROVIDE (__load_stop_text0 = LOADADDR (.text0) + SIZEOF (.text0)); .text1 0x1000 : AT (0x4000 + SIZEOF (.text0)) { o2/*.o(.text) } PROVIDE (__load_start_text1 = LOADADDR (.text1)); PROVIDE (__load_stop_text1 = LOADADDR (.text1) + SIZEOF (.text1)); . = 0x1000 + MAX (SIZEOF (.text0), SIZEOF (.text1));
The linker’s default configuration permits allocation of all available
memory. You can override this by using the MEMORY
command.
The MEMORY
command describes the location and size of blocks of
memory in the target. You can use it to describe which memory regions
may be used by the linker, and which memory regions it must avoid. You
can then assign sections to particular memory regions. The linker will
set section addresses based on the memory regions, and will warn about
regions that become too full. The linker will not shuffle sections
around to fit into the available regions.
A linker script may contain many uses of the MEMORY
command,
however, all memory blocks defined are treated as if they were
specified inside a single MEMORY
command. The syntax for
MEMORY
is:
MEMORY { name [(attr)] : ORIGIN = origin, LENGTH = len … }
The name is a name used in the linker script to refer to the
region. The region name has no meaning outside of the linker script.
Region names are stored in a separate name space, and will not conflict
with symbol names, file names, or section names. Each memory region
must have a distinct name within the MEMORY
command. However you can
add later alias names to existing memory regions with the REGION_ALIAS
command.
The attr string is an optional list of attributes that specify whether to use a particular memory region for an input section which is not explicitly mapped in the linker script. As described in SECTIONS, if you do not specify an output section for some input section, the linker will create an output section with the same name as the input section. If you define region attributes, the linker will use them to select the memory region for the output section that it creates.
The attr string must consist only of the following characters:
Read-only section
Read/write section
Executable section
Allocatable section
Initialized section
Same as ‘I’
Invert the sense of any of the attributes that follow
If an unmapped section matches any of the listed attributes other than ‘!’, it will be placed in the memory region. The ‘!’ attribute reverses the test for the characters that follow, so that an unmapped section will be placed in the memory region only if it does not match any of the attributes listed afterwards. Thus an attribute string of ‘RW!X’ will match any unmapped section that has either or both of the ‘R’ and ‘W’ attributes, but only as long as the section does not also have the ‘X’ attribute.
The origin is an numerical expression for the start address of
the memory region. The expression must evaluate to a constant and it
cannot involve any symbols. The keyword ORIGIN
may be
abbreviated to org
or o
(but not, for example,
ORG
).
The len is an expression for the size in bytes of the memory
region. As with the origin expression, the expression must
be numerical only and must evaluate to a constant. The keyword
LENGTH
may be abbreviated to len
or l
.
In the following example, we specify that there are two memory regions available for allocation: one starting at ‘0’ for 256 kilobytes, and the other starting at ‘0x40000000’ for four megabytes. The linker will place into the ‘rom’ memory region every section which is not explicitly mapped into a memory region, and is either read-only or executable. The linker will place other sections which are not explicitly mapped into a memory region into the ‘ram’ memory region.
MEMORY { rom (rx) : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 256K ram (!rx) : org = 0x40000000, l = 4M }
Once you define a memory region, you can direct the linker to place specific output sections into that memory region by using the ‘>region’ output section attribute. For example, if you have a memory region named ‘mem’, you would use ‘>mem’ in the output section definition. See Output Section Region. If no address was specified for the output section, the linker will set the address to the next available address within the memory region. If the combined output sections directed to a memory region are too large for the region, the linker will issue an error message.
It is possible to access the origin and length of a memory in an
expression via the ORIGIN(memory)
and
LENGTH(memory)
functions:
_fstack = ORIGIN(ram) + LENGTH(ram) - 4;
The ELF object file format uses program headers, also knows as
segments. The program headers describe how the program should be
loaded into memory. You can print them out by using the objdump
program with the ‘-p’ option.
When you run an ELF program on a native ELF system, the system loader reads the program headers in order to figure out how to load the program. This will only work if the program headers are set correctly. This manual does not describe the details of how the system loader interprets program headers; for more information, see the ELF ABI.
The linker will create reasonable program headers by default. However,
in some cases, you may need to specify the program headers more
precisely. You may use the PHDRS
command for this purpose. When
the linker sees the PHDRS
command in the linker script, it will
not create any program headers other than the ones specified.
The linker only pays attention to the PHDRS
command when
generating an ELF output file. In other cases, the linker will simply
ignore PHDRS
.
This is the syntax of the PHDRS
command. The words PHDRS
,
FILEHDR
, AT
, and FLAGS
are keywords.
PHDRS { name type [ FILEHDR ] [ PHDRS ] [ AT ( address ) ] [ FLAGS ( flags ) ] ; }
The name is used only for reference in the SECTIONS
command
of the linker script. It is not put into the output file. Program
header names are stored in a separate name space, and will not conflict
with symbol names, file names, or section names. Each program header
must have a distinct name. The headers are processed in order and it
is usual for them to map to sections in ascending load address order.
Certain program header types describe segments of memory which the system loader will load from the file. In the linker script, you specify the contents of these segments by placing allocatable output sections in the segments. You use the ‘:phdr’ output section attribute to place a section in a particular segment. See Output Section Phdr.
It is normal to put certain sections in more than one segment. This merely implies that one segment of memory contains another. You may repeat ‘:phdr’, using it once for each segment which should contain the section.
If you place a section in one or more segments using ‘:phdr’,
then the linker will place all subsequent allocatable sections which do
not specify ‘:phdr’ in the same segments. This is for
convenience, since generally a whole set of contiguous sections will be
placed in a single segment. You can use :NONE
to override the
default segment and tell the linker to not put the section in any
segment at all.
You may use the FILEHDR
and PHDRS
keywords after
the program header type to further describe the contents of the segment.
The FILEHDR
keyword means that the segment should include the ELF
file header. The PHDRS
keyword means that the segment should
include the ELF program headers themselves. If applied to a loadable
segment (PT_LOAD
), all prior loadable segments must have one of
these keywords.
The type may be one of the following. The numbers indicate the value of the keyword.
PT_NULL
(0)Indicates an unused program header.
PT_LOAD
(1)Indicates that this program header describes a segment to be loaded from the file.
PT_DYNAMIC
(2)Indicates a segment where dynamic linking information can be found.
PT_INTERP
(3)Indicates a segment where the name of the program interpreter may be found.
PT_NOTE
(4)Indicates a segment holding note information.
PT_SHLIB
(5)A reserved program header type, defined but not specified by the ELF ABI.
PT_PHDR
(6)Indicates a segment where the program headers may be found.
PT_TLS
(7)Indicates a segment containing thread local storage.
An expression giving the numeric type of the program header. This may be used for types not defined above.
You can specify that a segment should be loaded at a particular address
in memory by using an AT
expression. This is identical to the
AT
command used as an output section attribute (see Output Section LMA). The AT
command for a program header overrides the
output section attribute.
The linker will normally set the segment flags based on the sections
which comprise the segment. You may use the FLAGS
keyword to
explicitly specify the segment flags. The value of flags must be
an integer. It is used to set the p_flags
field of the program
header.
Here is an example of PHDRS
. This shows a typical set of program
headers used on a native ELF system.
PHDRS { headers PT_PHDR PHDRS ; interp PT_INTERP ; text PT_LOAD FILEHDR PHDRS ; data PT_LOAD ; dynamic PT_DYNAMIC ; } SECTIONS { . = SIZEOF_HEADERS; .interp : { *(.interp) } :text :interp .text : { *(.text) } :text .rodata : { *(.rodata) } /* defaults to :text */ … . = . + 0x1000; /* move to a new page in memory */ .data : { *(.data) } :data .dynamic : { *(.dynamic) } :data :dynamic … }
Next: Expressions, Previous: PHDRS, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
The linker supports symbol versions when using ELF. Symbol versions are only useful when using shared libraries. The dynamic linker can use symbol versions to select a specific version of a function when it runs a program that may have been linked against an earlier version of the shared library.
You can include a version script directly in the main linker script, or you can supply the version script as an implicit linker script. You can also use the ‘--version-script’ linker option.
The syntax of the VERSION
command is simply
VERSION { version-script-commands }
The format of the version script commands is identical to that used by Sun’s linker in Solaris 2.5. The version script defines a tree of version nodes. You specify the node names and interdependencies in the version script. You can specify which symbols are bound to which version nodes, and you can reduce a specified set of symbols to local scope so that they are not globally visible outside of the shared library.
The easiest way to demonstrate the version script language is with a few examples.
VERS_1.1 { global: foo1; local: old*; original*; new*; }; VERS_1.2 { foo2; } VERS_1.1; VERS_2.0 { bar1; bar2; extern "C++" { ns::*; "f(int, double)"; }; } VERS_1.2;
This example version script defines three version nodes. The first version node defined is ‘VERS_1.1’; it has no other dependencies. The script binds the symbol ‘foo1’ to ‘VERS_1.1’. It reduces a number of symbols to local scope so that they are not visible outside of the shared library; this is done using wildcard patterns, so that any symbol whose name begins with ‘old’, ‘original’, or ‘new’ is matched. The wildcard patterns available are the same as those used in the shell when matching filenames (also known as “globbing”). However, if you specify the symbol name inside double quotes, then the name is treated as literal, rather than as a glob pattern.
Next, the version script defines node ‘VERS_1.2’. This node depends upon ‘VERS_1.1’. The script binds the symbol ‘foo2’ to the version node ‘VERS_1.2’.
Finally, the version script defines node ‘VERS_2.0’. This node depends upon ‘VERS_1.2’. The scripts binds the symbols ‘bar1’ and ‘bar2’ are bound to the version node ‘VERS_2.0’.
When the linker finds a symbol defined in a library which is not specifically bound to a version node, it will effectively bind it to an unspecified base version of the library. You can bind all otherwise unspecified symbols to a given version node by using ‘global: *;’ somewhere in the version script. Note that it’s slightly crazy to use wildcards in a global spec except on the last version node. Global wildcards elsewhere run the risk of accidentally adding symbols to the set exported for an old version. That’s wrong since older versions ought to have a fixed set of symbols.
The names of the version nodes have no specific meaning other than what they might suggest to the person reading them. The ‘2.0’ version could just as well have appeared in between ‘1.1’ and ‘1.2’. However, this would be a confusing way to write a version script.
Node name can be omitted, provided it is the only version node in the version script. Such version script doesn’t assign any versions to symbols, only selects which symbols will be globally visible out and which won’t.
{ global: foo; bar; local: *; };
When you link an application against a shared library that has versioned symbols, the application itself knows which version of each symbol it requires, and it also knows which version nodes it needs from each shared library it is linked against. Thus at runtime, the dynamic loader can make a quick check to make sure that the libraries you have linked against do in fact supply all of the version nodes that the application will need to resolve all of the dynamic symbols. In this way it is possible for the dynamic linker to know with certainty that all external symbols that it needs will be resolvable without having to search for each symbol reference.
The symbol versioning is in effect a much more sophisticated way of doing minor version checking that SunOS does. The fundamental problem that is being addressed here is that typically references to external functions are bound on an as-needed basis, and are not all bound when the application starts up. If a shared library is out of date, a required interface may be missing; when the application tries to use that interface, it may suddenly and unexpectedly fail. With symbol versioning, the user will get a warning when they start their program if the libraries being used with the application are too old.
There are several GNU extensions to Sun’s versioning approach. The first of these is the ability to bind a symbol to a version node in the source file where the symbol is defined instead of in the versioning script. This was done mainly to reduce the burden on the library maintainer. You can do this by putting something like:
__asm__(".symver original_foo,foo@VERS_1.1");
in the C source file. This renames the function ‘original_foo’ to be an alias for ‘foo’ bound to the version node ‘VERS_1.1’. The ‘local:’ directive can be used to prevent the symbol ‘original_foo’ from being exported. A ‘.symver’ directive takes precedence over a version script.
The second GNU extension is to allow multiple versions of the same function to appear in a given shared library. In this way you can make an incompatible change to an interface without increasing the major version number of the shared library, while still allowing applications linked against the old interface to continue to function.
To do this, you must use multiple ‘.symver’ directives in the source file. Here is an example:
__asm__(".symver original_foo,foo@"); __asm__(".symver old_foo,foo@VERS_1.1"); __asm__(".symver old_foo1,foo@VERS_1.2"); __asm__(".symver new_foo,foo@@VERS_2.0");
In this example, ‘foo@’ represents the symbol ‘foo’ bound to the unspecified base version of the symbol. The source file that contains this example would define 4 C functions: ‘original_foo’, ‘old_foo’, ‘old_foo1’, and ‘new_foo’.
When you have multiple definitions of a given symbol, there needs to be some way to specify a default version to which external references to this symbol will be bound. You can do this with the ‘foo@@VERS_2.0’ type of ‘.symver’ directive. You can only declare one version of a symbol as the default in this manner; otherwise you would effectively have multiple definitions of the same symbol.
If you wish to bind a reference to a specific version of the symbol within the shared library, you can use the aliases of convenience (i.e., ‘old_foo’), or you can use the ‘.symver’ directive to specifically bind to an external version of the function in question.
You can also specify the language in the version script:
VERSION extern "lang" { version-script-commands }
The supported ‘lang’s are ‘C’, ‘C++’, and ‘Java’. The linker will iterate over the list of symbols at the link time and demangle them according to ‘lang’ before matching them to the patterns specified in ‘version-script-commands’. The default ‘lang’ is ‘C’.
Demangled names may contains spaces and other special characters. As described above, you can use a glob pattern to match demangled names, or you can use a double-quoted string to match the string exactly. In the latter case, be aware that minor differences (such as differing whitespace) between the version script and the demangler output will cause a mismatch. As the exact string generated by the demangler might change in the future, even if the mangled name does not, you should check that all of your version directives are behaving as you expect when you upgrade.
Next: Implicit Linker Scripts, Previous: VERSION, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
The syntax for expressions in the linker script language is identical to that of C expressions. All expressions are evaluated as integers. All expressions are evaluated in the same size, which is 32 bits if both the host and target are 32 bits, and is otherwise 64 bits.
You can use and set symbol values in expressions.
The linker defines several special purpose builtin functions for use in expressions.
• Constants | Constants | |
• Symbolic Constants | Symbolic constants | |
• Symbols | Symbol Names | |
• Orphan Sections | Orphan Sections | |
• Location Counter | The Location Counter | |
• Operators | Operators | |
• Evaluation | Evaluation | |
• Expression Section | The Section of an Expression | |
• Builtin Functions | Builtin Functions |
Next: Symbolic Constants, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
All constants are integers.
As in C, the linker considers an integer beginning with ‘0’ to be octal, and an integer beginning with ‘0x’ or ‘0X’ to be hexadecimal. Alternatively the linker accepts suffixes of ‘h’ or ‘H’ for hexadecimal, ‘o’ or ‘O’ for octal, ‘b’ or ‘B’ for binary and ‘d’ or ‘D’ for decimal. Any integer value without a prefix or a suffix is considered to be decimal.
In addition, you can use the suffixes K
and M
to scale a
constant by
1024
or 1024*1024
respectively. For example, the following
all refer to the same quantity:
_fourk_1 = 4K; _fourk_2 = 4096; _fourk_3 = 0x1000; _fourk_4 = 10000o;
Note - the K
and M
suffixes cannot be used in
conjunction with the base suffixes mentioned above.
Next: Symbols, Previous: Constants, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
It is possible to refer to target-specific constants via the use of
the CONSTANT(name)
operator, where name is one of:
MAXPAGESIZE
The target’s maximum page size.
COMMONPAGESIZE
The target’s default page size.
So for example:
.text ALIGN (CONSTANT (MAXPAGESIZE)) : { *(.text) }
will create a text section aligned to the largest page boundary supported by the target.
Next: Orphan Sections, Previous: Symbolic Constants, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, or period and may include letters, digits, underscores, periods, and hyphens. Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any keywords. You can specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has the same name as a keyword by surrounding the symbol name in double quotes:
"SECTION" = 9; "with a space" = "also with a space" + 10;
Since symbols can contain many non-alphabetic characters, it is safest to delimit symbols with spaces. For example, ‘A-B’ is one symbol, whereas ‘A - B’ is an expression involving subtraction.
Next: Location Counter, Previous: Symbols, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
Orphan sections are sections present in the input files which are not explicitly placed into the output file by the linker script. The linker will still copy these sections into the output file by either finding, or creating a suitable output section in which to place the orphaned input section.
If the name of an orphaned input section exactly matches the name of an existing output section, then the orphaned input section will be placed at the end of that output section.
If there is no output section with a matching name then new output sections will be created. Each new output section will have the same name as the orphan section placed within it. If there are multiple orphan sections with the same name, these will all be combined into one new output section.
If new output sections are created to hold orphaned input sections, then the linker must decide where to place these new output sections in relation to existing output sections. On most modern targets, the linker attempts to place orphan sections after sections of the same attribute, such as code vs data, loadable vs non-loadable, etc. If no sections with matching attributes are found, or your target lacks this support, the orphan section is placed at the end of the file.
The command-line options ‘--orphan-handling’ and ‘--unique’ (see Command-line Options) can be used to control which output sections an orphan is placed in.
Next: Operators, Previous: Orphan Sections, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
The special linker variable dot ‘.’ always contains the
current output location counter. Since the .
always refers to a
location in an output section, it may only appear in an expression
within a SECTIONS
command. The .
symbol may appear
anywhere that an ordinary symbol is allowed in an expression.
Assigning a value to .
will cause the location counter to be
moved. This may be used to create holes in the output section. The
location counter may not be moved backwards inside an output section,
and may not be moved backwards outside of an output section if so
doing creates areas with overlapping LMAs.
SECTIONS { output : { file1(.text) . = . + 1000; file2(.text) . += 1000; file3(.text) } = 0x12345678; }
In the previous example, the ‘.text’ section from file1 is located at the beginning of the output section ‘output’. It is followed by a 1000 byte gap. Then the ‘.text’ section from file2 appears, also with a 1000 byte gap following before the ‘.text’ section from file3. The notation ‘= 0x12345678’ specifies what data to write in the gaps (see Output Section Fill).
Note: .
actually refers to the byte offset from the start of the
current containing object. Normally this is the SECTIONS
statement, whose start address is 0, hence .
can be used as an
absolute address. If .
is used inside a section description
however, it refers to the byte offset from the start of that section,
not an absolute address. Thus in a script like this:
SECTIONS { . = 0x100 .text: { *(.text) . = 0x200 } . = 0x500 .data: { *(.data) . += 0x600 } }
The ‘.text’ section will be assigned a starting address of 0x100
and a size of exactly 0x200 bytes, even if there is not enough data in
the ‘.text’ input sections to fill this area. (If there is too
much data, an error will be produced because this would be an attempt to
move .
backwards). The ‘.data’ section will start at 0x500
and it will have an extra 0x600 bytes worth of space after the end of
the values from the ‘.data’ input sections and before the end of
the ‘.data’ output section itself.
Setting symbols to the value of the location counter outside of an output section statement can result in unexpected values if the linker needs to place orphan sections. For example, given the following:
SECTIONS { start_of_text = . ; .text: { *(.text) } end_of_text = . ; start_of_data = . ; .data: { *(.data) } end_of_data = . ; }
If the linker needs to place some input section, e.g. .rodata
,
not mentioned in the script, it might choose to place that section
between .text
and .data
. You might think the linker
should place .rodata
on the blank line in the above script, but
blank lines are of no particular significance to the linker. As well,
the linker doesn’t associate the above symbol names with their
sections. Instead, it assumes that all assignments or other
statements belong to the previous output section, except for the
special case of an assignment to .
. I.e., the linker will
place the orphan .rodata
section as if the script was written
as follows:
SECTIONS { start_of_text = . ; .text: { *(.text) } end_of_text = . ; start_of_data = . ; .rodata: { *(.rodata) } .data: { *(.data) } end_of_data = . ; }
This may or may not be the script author’s intention for the value of
start_of_data
. One way to influence the orphan section
placement is to assign the location counter to itself, as the linker
assumes that an assignment to .
is setting the start address of
a following output section and thus should be grouped with that
section. So you could write:
SECTIONS { start_of_text = . ; .text: { *(.text) } end_of_text = . ; . = . ; start_of_data = . ; .data: { *(.data) } end_of_data = . ; }
Now, the orphan .rodata
section will be placed between
end_of_text
and start_of_data
.
Next: Evaluation, Previous: Location Counter, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
The linker recognizes the standard C set of arithmetic operators, with the standard bindings and precedence levels:
precedence associativity Operators Notes (highest) 1 left ! - ~ (1) 2 left * / % 3 left + - 4 left >> << 5 left == != > < <= >= 6 left & 7 left | 8 left && 9 left || 10 right ? : 11 right &= += -= *= /= (2) (lowest)
Notes: (1) Prefix operators (2) See Assignments.
Next: Expression Section, Previous: Operators, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
The linker evaluates expressions lazily. It only computes the value of an expression when absolutely necessary.
The linker needs some information, such as the value of the start address of the first section, and the origins and lengths of memory regions, in order to do any linking at all. These values are computed as soon as possible when the linker reads in the linker script.
However, other values (such as symbol values) are not known or needed until after storage allocation. Such values are evaluated later, when other information (such as the sizes of output sections) is available for use in the symbol assignment expression.
The sizes of sections cannot be known until after allocation, so assignments dependent upon these are not performed until after allocation.
Some expressions, such as those depending upon the location counter ‘.’, must be evaluated during section allocation.
If the result of an expression is required, but the value is not available, then an error results. For example, a script like the following
SECTIONS { .text 9+this_isnt_constant : { *(.text) } }
will cause the error message ‘non constant expression for initial address’.
Next: Builtin Functions, Previous: Evaluation, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
Addresses and symbols may be section relative, or absolute. A section relative symbol is relocatable. If you request relocatable output using the ‘-r’ option, a further link operation may change the value of a section relative symbol. On the other hand, an absolute symbol will retain the same value throughout any further link operations.
Some terms in linker expressions are addresses. This is true of
section relative symbols and for builtin functions that return an
address, such as ADDR
, LOADADDR
, ORIGIN
and
SEGMENT_START
. Other terms are simply numbers, or are builtin
functions that return a non-address value, such as LENGTH
.
One complication is that unless you set LD_FEATURE ("SANE_EXPR")
(see Miscellaneous Commands), numbers and absolute symbols are treated
differently depending on their location, for compatibility with older
versions of ld
. Expressions appearing outside an output
section definition treat all numbers as absolute addresses.
Expressions appearing inside an output section definition treat
absolute symbols as numbers. If LD_FEATURE ("SANE_EXPR")
is
given, then absolute symbols and numbers are simply treated as numbers
everywhere.
In the following simple example,
SECTIONS { . = 0x100; __executable_start = 0x100; .data : { . = 0x10; __data_start = 0x10; *(.data) } … }
both .
and __executable_start
are set to the absolute
address 0x100 in the first two assignments, then both .
and
__data_start
are set to 0x10 relative to the .data
section in the second two assignments.
For expressions involving numbers, relative addresses and absolute addresses, ld follows these rules to evaluate terms:
The result section of each sub-expression is as follows:
LD_FEATURE ("SANE_EXPR")
or inside an output section definition
but an absolute address otherwise.
You can use the builtin function ABSOLUTE
to force an expression
to be absolute when it would otherwise be relative. For example, to
create an absolute symbol set to the address of the end of the output
section ‘.data’:
SECTIONS { .data : { *(.data) _edata = ABSOLUTE(.); } }
If ‘ABSOLUTE’ were not used, ‘_edata’ would be relative to the ‘.data’ section.
Using LOADADDR
also forces an expression absolute, since this
particular builtin function returns an absolute address.
Previous: Expression Section, Up: Expressions [Contents][Index]
The linker script language includes a number of builtin functions for use in linker script expressions.
ABSOLUTE(exp)
Return the absolute (non-relocatable, as opposed to non-negative) value of the expression exp. Primarily useful to assign an absolute value to a symbol within a section definition, where symbol values are normally section relative. See Expression Section.
ADDR(section)
Return the address (VMA) of the named section. Your
script must previously have defined the location of that section. In
the following example, start_of_output_1
, symbol_1
and
symbol_2
are assigned equivalent values, except that
symbol_1
will be relative to the .output1
section while
the other two will be absolute:
SECTIONS { … .output1 : { start_of_output_1 = ABSOLUTE(.); … } .output : { symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1); symbol_2 = start_of_output_1; } … }
ALIGN(align)
ALIGN(exp,align)
Return the location counter (.
) or arbitrary expression aligned
to the next align boundary. The single operand ALIGN
doesn’t change the value of the location counter—it just does
arithmetic on it. The two operand ALIGN
allows an arbitrary
expression to be aligned upwards (ALIGN(align)
is
equivalent to ALIGN(ABSOLUTE(.), align)
).
Here is an example which aligns the output .data
section to the
next 0x2000
byte boundary after the preceding section and sets a
variable within the section to the next 0x8000
boundary after the
input sections:
SECTIONS { … .data ALIGN(0x2000): { *(.data) variable = ALIGN(0x8000); } … }
The first use of ALIGN
in this example specifies the location of
a section because it is used as the optional address attribute of
a section definition (see Output Section Address). The second use
of ALIGN
is used to defines the value of a symbol.
The builtin function NEXT
is closely related to ALIGN
.
ALIGNOF(section)
Return the alignment in bytes of the named section, if that section has
been allocated. If the section has not been allocated when this is
evaluated, the linker will report an error. In the following example,
the alignment of the .output
section is stored as the first
value in that section.
SECTIONS{ … .output { LONG (ALIGNOF (.output)) … } … }
BLOCK(exp)
This is a synonym for ALIGN
, for compatibility with older linker
scripts. It is most often seen when setting the address of an output
section.
DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN(maxpagesize, commonpagesize)
This is equivalent to either
(ALIGN(maxpagesize) + (. & (maxpagesize - 1)))
or
(ALIGN(maxpagesize) + ((. + commonpagesize - 1) & (maxpagesize - commonpagesize)))
depending on whether the latter uses fewer commonpagesize sized pages
for the data segment (area between the result of this expression and
DATA_SEGMENT_END
) than the former or not.
If the latter form is used, it means commonpagesize bytes of runtime
memory will be saved at the expense of up to commonpagesize wasted
bytes in the on-disk file.
This expression can only be used directly in SECTIONS
commands, not in
any output section descriptions and only once in the linker script.
commonpagesize should be less or equal to maxpagesize and should
be the system page size the object wants to be optimized for while still
running on system page sizes up to maxpagesize. Note however
that ‘-z relro’ protection will not be effective if the system
page size is larger than commonpagesize.
Example:
. = DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN(0x10000, 0x2000);
DATA_SEGMENT_END(exp)
This defines the end of data segment for DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN
evaluation purposes.
. = DATA_SEGMENT_END(.);
DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END(offset, exp)
This defines the end of the PT_GNU_RELRO
segment when
‘-z relro’ option is used.
When ‘-z relro’ option is not present, DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END
does nothing, otherwise DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN
is padded so that
exp + offset is aligned to the commonpagesize
argument given to DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN
. If present in the linker
script, it must be placed between DATA_SEGMENT_ALIGN
and
DATA_SEGMENT_END
. Evaluates to the second argument plus any
padding needed at the end of the PT_GNU_RELRO
segment due to
section alignment.
. = DATA_SEGMENT_RELRO_END(24, .);
DEFINED(symbol)
Return 1 if symbol is in the linker global symbol table and is defined before the statement using DEFINED in the script, otherwise return 0. You can use this function to provide default values for symbols. For example, the following script fragment shows how to set a global symbol ‘begin’ to the first location in the ‘.text’ section—but if a symbol called ‘begin’ already existed, its value is preserved:
SECTIONS { … .text : { begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ; … } … }
LENGTH(memory)
Return the length of the memory region named memory.
LOADADDR(section)
Return the absolute LMA of the named section. (see Output Section LMA).
LOG2CEIL(exp)
Return the binary logarithm of exp rounded towards infinity.
LOG2CEIL(0)
returns 0.
MAX(exp1, exp2)
Returns the maximum of exp1 and exp2.
MIN(exp1, exp2)
Returns the minimum of exp1 and exp2.
NEXT(exp)
Return the next unallocated address that is a multiple of exp.
This function is closely related to ALIGN(exp)
; unless you
use the MEMORY
command to define discontinuous memory for the
output file, the two functions are equivalent.
ORIGIN(memory)
Return the origin of the memory region named memory.
SEGMENT_START(segment, default)
Return the base address of the named segment. If an explicit
value has already been given for this segment (with a command-line
‘-T’ option) then that value will be returned otherwise the value
will be default. At present, the ‘-T’ command-line option
can only be used to set the base address for the “text”, “data”, and
“bss” sections, but you can use SEGMENT_START
with any segment
name.
SIZEOF(section)
Return the size in bytes of the named section, if that section has
been allocated. If the section has not been allocated when this is
evaluated, the linker will report an error. In the following example,
symbol_1
and symbol_2
are assigned identical values:
SECTIONS{ … .output { .start = . ; … .end = . ; } symbol_1 = .end - .start ; symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output); … }
SIZEOF_HEADERS
sizeof_headers
Return the size in bytes of the output file’s headers. This is information which appears at the start of the output file. You can use this number when setting the start address of the first section, if you choose, to facilitate paging.
When producing an ELF output file, if the linker script uses the
SIZEOF_HEADERS
builtin function, the linker must compute the
number of program headers before it has determined all the section
addresses and sizes. If the linker later discovers that it needs
additional program headers, it will report an error ‘not enough
room for program headers’. To avoid this error, you must avoid using
the SIZEOF_HEADERS
function, or you must rework your linker
script to avoid forcing the linker to use additional program headers, or
you must define the program headers yourself using the PHDRS
command (see PHDRS).
Previous: Expressions, Up: Scripts [Contents][Index]
If you specify a linker input file which the linker can not recognize as an object file or an archive file, it will try to read the file as a linker script. If the file can not be parsed as a linker script, the linker will report an error.
An implicit linker script will not replace the default linker script.
Typically an implicit linker script would contain only symbol
assignments, or the INPUT
, GROUP
, or VERSION
commands.
Any input files read because of an implicit linker script will be read at the position in the command line where the implicit linker script was read. This can affect archive searching.
Next: Machine Dependent, Previous: Scripts, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
The linker can use dynamically loaded plugins to modify its behavior. For example, the link-time optimization feature that some compilers support is implemented with a linker plugin.
Currently there is only one plugin shipped by default, but more may be added here later.
• libdep Plugin | Static Library Dependencies Plugin |
Originally, static libraries were contained in an archive file consisting just of a collection of relocatable object files. Later they evolved to optionally include a symbol table, to assist in finding the needed objects within a library. There their evolution ended, and dynamic libraries rose to ascendance.
One useful feature of dynamic libraries was that, more than just collecting multiple objects into a single file, they also included a list of their dependencies, such that one could specify just the name of a single dynamic library at link time, and all of its dependencies would be implicitly referenced as well. But static libraries lacked this feature, so if a link invocation was switched from using dynamic libraries to static libraries, the link command would usually fail unless it was rewritten to explicitly list the dependencies of the static library.
The GNU ar
utility now supports a --record-libdeps option
to embed dependency lists into static libraries as well, and the libdep
plugin may be used to read this dependency information at link time. The
dependency information is stored as a single string, carrying -l
and -L arguments as they would normally appear in a linker
command line. As such, the information can be written with any text
utility and stored into any archive, even if GNU ar
is not
being used to create the archive. The information is stored in an
archive member named ‘__.LIBDEP’.
For example, given a library libssl.a that depends on another library libcrypto.a which may be found in /usr/local/lib, the ‘__.LIBDEP’ member of libssl.a would contain
-L/usr/local/lib -lcrypto
ld
has additional features on some platforms; the following
sections describe them. Machines where ld
has no additional
functionality are not listed.
• H8/300 | ld and the H8/300
| |
• M68HC11/68HC12 | ld and the Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 families
| |
• ARM | ld and the ARM family
| |
• HPPA ELF32 | ld and HPPA 32-bit ELF
| |
• M68K | ld and the Motorola 68K family
| |
• MIPS | ld and the MIPS family
| |
• MMIX | ld and MMIX
| |
• MSP430 | ld and MSP430
| |
• NDS32 | ld and NDS32
| |
• Nios II | ld and the Altera Nios II
| |
• PowerPC ELF32 | ld and PowerPC 32-bit ELF Support
| |
• PowerPC64 ELF64 | ld and PowerPC64 64-bit ELF Support
| |
• S/390 ELF | ld and S/390 ELF Support
| |
• SPU ELF | ld and SPU ELF Support
| |
• TI COFF | ld and TI COFF
| |
• WIN32 | ld and WIN32 (cygwin/mingw)
| |
• Xtensa | ld and Xtensa Processors
|
Next: M68HC11/68HC12, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and the H8/300For the H8/300, ld
can perform these global optimizations when
you specify the ‘--relax’ command-line option.
ld
finds all jsr
and jmp
instructions whose
targets are within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit
program-counter relative bsr
and bra
instructions,
respectively.
ld
finds all mov.b
instructions which use the
sixteen-bit absolute address form, but refer to the top
page of memory, and changes them to use the eight-bit address form.
(That is: the linker turns ‘mov.b @
aa:16’ into
‘mov.b @
aa:8’ whenever the address aa is in the
top page of memory).
ld
finds all mov
instructions which use the register
indirect with 32-bit displacement addressing mode, but use a small
displacement inside 16-bit displacement range, and changes them to use
the 16-bit displacement form. (That is: the linker turns ‘mov.b
@
d:32,ERx’ into ‘mov.b @
d:16,ERx’
whenever the displacement d is in the 16 bit signed integer
range. Only implemented in ELF-format ld).
ld
finds all bit manipulation instructions like band, bclr,
biand, bild, bior, bist, bixor, bld, bnot, bor, bset, bst, btst, bxor
which use 32 bit and 16 bit absolute address form, but refer to the top
page of memory, and changes them to use the 8 bit address form.
(That is: the linker turns ‘bset #xx:3,@
aa:32’ into
‘bset #xx:3,@
aa:8’ whenever the address aa is in
the top page of memory).
ld
finds all ldc.w, stc.w
instructions which use the
32 bit absolute address form, but refer to the top page of memory, and
changes them to use 16 bit address form.
(That is: the linker turns ‘ldc.w @
aa:32,ccr’ into
‘ldc.w @
aa:16,ccr’ whenever the address aa is in
the top page of memory).
Next: ARM, Previous: H8/300, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and the Motorola 68HC11 and 68HC12 familiesFor the Motorola 68HC11, ld
can perform these global
optimizations when you specify the ‘--relax’ command-line option.
ld
finds all jsr
and jmp
instructions whose
targets are within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit
program-counter relative bsr
and bra
instructions,
respectively.
ld
also looks at all 16-bit extended addressing modes and
transforms them in a direct addressing mode when the address is in
page 0 (between 0 and 0x0ff).
When gcc
is called with -mrelax, it can emit group
of instructions that the linker can optimize to use a 68HC11 direct
addressing mode. These instructions consists of bclr
or
bset
instructions.
For 68HC11 and 68HC12, ld
can generate trampoline code to
call a far function using a normal jsr
instruction. The linker
will also change the relocation to some far function to use the
trampoline address instead of the function address. This is typically the
case when a pointer to a function is taken. The pointer will in fact
point to the function trampoline.
Next: HPPA ELF32, Previous: M68HC11/68HC12, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and the ARM familyFor the ARM, ld
will generate code stubs to allow functions calls
between ARM and Thumb code. These stubs only work with code that has
been compiled and assembled with the ‘-mthumb-interwork’ command
line option. If it is necessary to link with old ARM object files or
libraries, which have not been compiled with the -mthumb-interwork
option then the ‘--support-old-code’ command-line switch should be
given to the linker. This will make it generate larger stub functions
which will work with non-interworking aware ARM code. Note, however,
the linker does not support generating stubs for function calls to
non-interworking aware Thumb code.
The ‘--thumb-entry’ switch is a duplicate of the generic ‘--entry’ switch, in that it sets the program’s starting address. But it also sets the bottom bit of the address, so that it can be branched to using a BX instruction, and the program will start executing in Thumb mode straight away.
The ‘--use-nul-prefixed-import-tables’ switch is specifying, that the import tables idata4 and idata5 have to be generated with a zero element prefix for import libraries. This is the old style to generate import tables. By default this option is turned off.
The ‘--be8’ switch instructs ld
to generate BE8 format
executables. This option is only valid when linking big-endian
objects - ie ones which have been assembled with the -EB
option. The resulting image will contain big-endian data and
little-endian code.
The ‘R_ARM_TARGET1’ relocation is typically used for entries in the ‘.init_array’ section. It is interpreted as either ‘R_ARM_REL32’ or ‘R_ARM_ABS32’, depending on the target. The ‘--target1-rel’ and ‘--target1-abs’ switches override the default.
The ‘--target2=type’ switch overrides the default definition of the ‘R_ARM_TARGET2’ relocation. Valid values for ‘type’, their meanings, and target defaults are as follows:
‘R_ARM_REL32’ (arm*-*-elf, arm*-*-eabi)
‘R_ARM_ABS32’
‘R_ARM_GOT_PREL’ (arm*-*-linux, arm*-*-*bsd)
The ‘R_ARM_V4BX’ relocation (defined by the ARM AAELF specification) enables objects compiled for the ARMv4 architecture to be interworking-safe when linked with other objects compiled for ARMv4t, but also allows pure ARMv4 binaries to be built from the same ARMv4 objects.
In the latter case, the switch --fix-v4bx must be passed to the
linker, which causes v4t BX rM
instructions to be rewritten as
MOV PC,rM
, since v4 processors do not have a BX
instruction.
In the former case, the switch should not be used, and ‘R_ARM_V4BX’ relocations are ignored.
Replace BX rM
instructions identified by ‘R_ARM_V4BX’
relocations with a branch to the following veneer:
TST rM, #1 MOVEQ PC, rM BX Rn
This allows generation of libraries/applications that work on ARMv4 cores and are still interworking safe. Note that the above veneer clobbers the condition flags, so may cause incorrect program behavior in rare cases.
The ‘--use-blx’ switch enables the linker to use ARM/Thumb BLX instructions (available on ARMv5t and above) in various situations. Currently it is used to perform calls via the PLT from Thumb code using BLX rather than using BX and a mode-switching stub before each PLT entry. This should lead to such calls executing slightly faster.
The ‘--vfp11-denorm-fix’ switch enables a link-time workaround for a bug in certain VFP11 coprocessor hardware, which sometimes allows instructions with denorm operands (which must be handled by support code) to have those operands overwritten by subsequent instructions before the support code can read the intended values.
The bug may be avoided in scalar mode if you allow at least one intervening instruction between a VFP11 instruction which uses a register and another instruction which writes to the same register, or at least two intervening instructions if vector mode is in use. The bug only affects full-compliance floating-point mode: you do not need this workaround if you are using "runfast" mode. Please contact ARM for further details.
If you know you are using buggy VFP11 hardware, you can enable this workaround by specifying the linker option ‘--vfp-denorm-fix=scalar’ if you are using the VFP11 scalar mode only, or ‘--vfp-denorm-fix=vector’ if you are using vector mode (the latter also works for scalar code). The default is ‘--vfp-denorm-fix=none’.
If the workaround is enabled, instructions are scanned for potentially-troublesome sequences, and a veneer is created for each such sequence which may trigger the erratum. The veneer consists of the first instruction of the sequence and a branch back to the subsequent instruction. The original instruction is then replaced with a branch to the veneer. The extra cycles required to call and return from the veneer are sufficient to avoid the erratum in both the scalar and vector cases.
The ‘--fix-arm1176’ switch enables a link-time workaround for an erratum in certain ARM1176 processors. The workaround is enabled by default if you are targeting ARM v6 (excluding ARM v6T2) or earlier. It can be disabled unconditionally by specifying ‘--no-fix-arm1176’.
Further information is available in the “ARM1176JZ-S and ARM1176JZF-S Programmer Advice Notice” available on the ARM documentation website at: http://infocenter.arm.com/.
The ‘--fix-stm32l4xx-629360’ switch enables a link-time workaround for a bug in the bus matrix / memory controller for some of the STM32 Cortex-M4 based products (STM32L4xx). When accessing off-chip memory via the affected bus for bus reads of 9 words or more, the bus can generate corrupt data and/or abort. These are only core-initiated accesses (not DMA), and might affect any access: integer loads such as LDM, POP and floating-point loads such as VLDM, VPOP. Stores are not affected.
The bug can be avoided by splitting memory accesses into the necessary chunks to keep bus reads below 8 words.
The workaround is not enabled by default, this is equivalent to use ‘--fix-stm32l4xx-629360=none’. If you know you are using buggy STM32L4xx hardware, you can enable the workaround by specifying the linker option ‘--fix-stm32l4xx-629360’, or the equivalent ‘--fix-stm32l4xx-629360=default’.
If the workaround is enabled, instructions are scanned for potentially-troublesome sequences, and a veneer is created for each such sequence which may trigger the erratum. The veneer consists in a replacement sequence emulating the behaviour of the original one and a branch back to the subsequent instruction. The original instruction is then replaced with a branch to the veneer.
The workaround does not always preserve the memory access order for the LDMDB instruction, when the instruction loads the PC.
The workaround is not able to handle problematic instructions when they are in the middle of an IT block, since a branch is not allowed there. In that case, the linker reports a warning and no replacement occurs.
The workaround is not able to replace problematic instructions with a PC-relative branch instruction if the ‘.text’ section is too large. In that case, when the branch that replaces the original code cannot be encoded, the linker reports a warning and no replacement occurs.
The --no-enum-size-warning switch prevents the linker from warning when linking object files that specify incompatible EABI enumeration size attributes. For example, with this switch enabled, linking of an object file using 32-bit enumeration values with another using enumeration values fitted into the smallest possible space will not be diagnosed.
The --no-wchar-size-warning switch prevents the linker from
warning when linking object files that specify incompatible EABI
wchar_t
size attributes. For example, with this switch enabled,
linking of an object file using 32-bit wchar_t
values with another
using 16-bit wchar_t
values will not be diagnosed.
The ‘--pic-veneer’ switch makes the linker use PIC sequences for ARM/Thumb interworking veneers, even if the rest of the binary is not PIC. This avoids problems on uClinux targets where ‘--emit-relocs’ is used to generate relocatable binaries.
The linker will automatically generate and insert small sequences of code into a linked ARM ELF executable whenever an attempt is made to perform a function call to a symbol that is too far away. The placement of these sequences of instructions - called stubs - is controlled by the command-line option --stub-group-size=N. The placement is important because a poor choice can create a need for duplicate stubs, increasing the code size. The linker will try to group stubs together in order to reduce interruptions to the flow of code, but it needs guidance as to how big these groups should be and where they should be placed.
The value of ‘N’, the parameter to the --stub-group-size= option controls where the stub groups are placed. If it is negative then all stubs are placed after the first branch that needs them. If it is positive then the stubs can be placed either before or after the branches that need them. If the value of ‘N’ is 1 (either +1 or -1) then the linker will choose exactly where to place groups of stubs, using its built in heuristics. A value of ‘N’ greater than 1 (or smaller than -1) tells the linker that a single group of stubs can service at most ‘N’ bytes from the input sections.
The default, if --stub-group-size= is not specified, is ‘N = +1’.
Farcalls stubs insertion is fully supported for the ARM-EABI target only, because it relies on object files properties not present otherwise.
The ‘--fix-cortex-a8’ switch enables a link-time workaround for an erratum in certain Cortex-A8 processors. The workaround is enabled by default if you are targeting the ARM v7-A architecture profile. It can be enabled otherwise by specifying ‘--fix-cortex-a8’, or disabled unconditionally by specifying ‘--no-fix-cortex-a8’.
The erratum only affects Thumb-2 code. Please contact ARM for further details.
The ‘--fix-cortex-a53-835769’ switch enables a link-time workaround for erratum 835769 present on certain early revisions of Cortex-A53 processors. The workaround is disabled by default. It can be enabled by specifying ‘--fix-cortex-a53-835769’, or disabled unconditionally by specifying ‘--no-fix-cortex-a53-835769’.
Please contact ARM for further details.
The ‘--no-merge-exidx-entries’ switch disables the merging of adjacent exidx entries in debuginfo.
The ‘--long-plt’ option enables the use of 16 byte PLT entries which support up to 4Gb of code. The default is to use 12 byte PLT entries which only support 512Mb of code.
The ‘--no-apply-dynamic-relocs’ option makes AArch64 linker do not apply link-time values for dynamic relocations.
All SG veneers are placed in the special output section .gnu.sgstubs
.
Its start address must be set, either with the command-line option
‘--section-start’ or in a linker script, to indicate where to place these
veneers in memory.
The ‘--cmse-implib’ option requests that the import libraries specified by the ‘--out-implib’ and ‘--in-implib’ options are secure gateway import libraries, suitable for linking a non-secure executable against secure code as per ARMv8-M Security Extensions.
The ‘--in-implib=file’ specifies an input import library whose symbols must keep the same address in the executable being produced. A warning is given if no ‘--out-implib’ is given but new symbols have been introduced in the executable that should be listed in its import library. Otherwise, if ‘--out-implib’ is specified, the symbols are added to the output import library. A warning is also given if some symbols present in the input import library have disappeared from the executable. This option is only effective for Secure Gateway import libraries, ie. when ‘--cmse-implib’ is specified.
Next: M68K, Previous: ARM, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and HPPA 32-bit ELF SupportWhen generating a shared library, ld
will by default generate
import stubs suitable for use with a single sub-space application.
The ‘--multi-subspace’ switch causes ld
to generate export
stubs, and different (larger) import stubs suitable for use with
multiple sub-spaces.
Long branch stubs and import/export stubs are placed by ld
in
stub sections located between groups of input sections.
‘--stub-group-size’ specifies the maximum size of a group of input
sections handled by one stub section. Since branch offsets are signed,
a stub section may serve two groups of input sections, one group before
the stub section, and one group after it. However, when using
conditional branches that require stubs, it may be better (for branch
prediction) that stub sections only serve one group of input sections.
A negative value for ‘N’ chooses this scheme, ensuring that
branches to stubs always use a negative offset. Two special values of
‘N’ are recognized, ‘1’ and ‘-1’. These both instruct
ld
to automatically size input section groups for the branch types
detected, with the same behaviour regarding stub placement as other
positive or negative values of ‘N’ respectively.
Note that ‘--stub-group-size’ does not split input sections. A single input section larger than the group size specified will of course create a larger group (of one section). If input sections are too large, it may not be possible for a branch to reach its stub.
Next: MIPS, Previous: HPPA ELF32, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and the Motorola 68K familyThe ‘--got=type’ option lets you choose the GOT generation scheme. The choices are ‘single’, ‘negative’, ‘multigot’ and ‘target’. When ‘target’ is selected the linker chooses the default GOT generation scheme for the current target. ‘single’ tells the linker to generate a single GOT with entries only at non-negative offsets. ‘negative’ instructs the linker to generate a single GOT with entries at both negative and positive offsets. Not all environments support such GOTs. ‘multigot’ allows the linker to generate several GOTs in the output file. All GOT references from a single input object file access the same GOT, but references from different input object files might access different GOTs. Not all environments support such GOTs.
Next: MMIX, Previous: M68K, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and the MIPS familyThe ‘--insn32’ and ‘--no-insn32’ options control the choice of microMIPS instructions used in code generated by the linker, such as that in the PLT or lazy binding stubs, or in relaxation. If ‘--insn32’ is used, then the linker only uses 32-bit instruction encodings. By default or if ‘--no-insn32’ is used, all instruction encodings are used, including 16-bit ones where possible.
The ‘--ignore-branch-isa’ and ‘--no-ignore-branch-isa’ options
control branch relocation checks for invalid ISA mode transitions. If
‘--ignore-branch-isa’ is used, then the linker accepts any branch
relocations and any ISA mode transition required is lost in relocation
calculation, except for some cases of BAL
instructions which meet
relaxation conditions and are converted to equivalent JALX
instructions as the associated relocation is calculated. By default
or if ‘--no-ignore-branch-isa’ is used a check is made causing
the loss of an ISA mode transition to produce an error.
Next: MSP430, Previous: MIPS, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and MMIXFor MMIX, there is a choice of generating ELF
object files or
mmo
object files when linking. The simulator mmix
understands the mmo
format. The binutils objcopy
utility
can translate between the two formats.
There is one special section, the ‘.MMIX.reg_contents’ section.
Contents in this section is assumed to correspond to that of global
registers, and symbols referring to it are translated to special symbols,
equal to registers. In a final link, the start address of the
‘.MMIX.reg_contents’ section corresponds to the first allocated
global register multiplied by 8. Register $255
is not included in
this section; it is always set to the program entry, which is at the
symbol Main
for mmo
files.
Global symbols with the prefix __.MMIX.start.
, for example
__.MMIX.start..text
and __.MMIX.start..data
are special.
The default linker script uses these to set the default start address
of a section.
Initial and trailing multiples of zero-valued 32-bit words in a section, are left out from an mmo file.
Next: NDS32, Previous: MMIX, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and MSP430For the MSP430 it is possible to select the MPU architecture. The flag ‘-m [mpu type]’ will select an appropriate linker script for selected MPU type. (To get a list of known MPUs just pass ‘-m help’ option to the linker).
The linker will recognize some extra sections which are MSP430 specific:
‘.vectors’
Defines a portion of ROM where interrupt vectors located.
‘.bootloader’
Defines the bootloader portion of the ROM (if applicable). Any code in this section will be uploaded to the MPU.
‘.infomem’
Defines an information memory section (if applicable). Any code in this section will be uploaded to the MPU.
‘.infomemnobits’
This is the same as the ‘.infomem’ section except that any code in this section will not be uploaded to the MPU.
‘.noinit’
Denotes a portion of RAM located above ‘.bss’ section.
The last two sections are used by gcc.
This will transform .text* sections to [either,lower,upper].text* sections. The argument passed to GCC for -mcode-region is propagated to the linker using this option.
This will transform .data*, .bss* and .rodata* sections to [either,lower,upper].[data,bss,rodata]* sections. The argument passed to GCC for -mdata-region is propagated to the linker using this option.
Prevent the transformation of sections as specified by the --code-region
and --data-region
options.
This is useful if you are compiling and linking using a single call to the GCC
wrapper, and want to compile the source files using -m[code,data]-region but
not transform the sections for prebuilt libraries and objects.
Next: Nios II, Previous: MSP430, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and NDS32For NDS32, there are some options to select relaxation behavior. The linker relaxes objects according to these options.
‘--m[no-]fp-as-gp’
Disable/enable fp-as-gp relaxation.
‘--mexport-symbols=FILE’
Exporting symbols and their address into FILE as linker script.
‘--m[no-]ex9’
Disable/enable link-time EX9 relaxation.
‘--mexport-ex9=FILE’
Export the EX9 table after linking.
‘--mimport-ex9=FILE’
Import the Ex9 table for EX9 relaxation.
‘--mupdate-ex9’
Update the existing EX9 table.
‘--mex9-limit=NUM’
Maximum number of entries in the ex9 table.
‘--mex9-loop-aware’
Avoid generating the EX9 instruction inside the loop.
‘--m[no-]ifc’
Disable/enable the link-time IFC optimization.
‘--mifc-loop-aware’
Avoid generating the IFC instruction inside the loop.
Next: PowerPC ELF32, Previous: NDS32, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and the Altera Nios IICall and immediate jump instructions on Nios II processors are limited to
transferring control to addresses in the same 256MB memory segment,
which may result in ld
giving
‘relocation truncated to fit’ errors with very large programs.
The command-line option --relax enables the generation of
trampolines that can access the entire 32-bit address space for calls
outside the normal call
and jmpi
address range. These
trampolines are inserted at section boundaries, so may not themselves
be reachable if an input section and its associated call trampolines are
larger than 256MB.
The --relax option is enabled by default unless -r
is also specified. You can disable trampoline generation by using the
--no-relax linker option. You can also disable this optimization
locally by using the ‘set .noat’ directive in assembly-language
source files, as the linker-inserted trampolines use the at
register as a temporary.
Note that the linker --relax option is independent of assembler relaxation options, and that using the GNU assembler’s -relax-all option interferes with the linker’s more selective call instruction relaxation.
Next: PowerPC64 ELF64, Previous: Nios II, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and PowerPC 32-bit ELF SupportBranches on PowerPC processors are limited to a signed 26-bit
displacement, which may result in ld
giving
‘relocation truncated to fit’ errors with very large programs.
‘--relax’ enables the generation of trampolines that can access
the entire 32-bit address space. These trampolines are inserted at
section boundaries, so may not themselves be reachable if an input
section exceeds 33M in size. You may combine ‘-r’ and
‘--relax’ to add trampolines in a partial link. In that case
both branches to undefined symbols and inter-section branches are also
considered potentially out of range, and trampolines inserted.
Current PowerPC GCC accepts a ‘-msecure-plt’ option that
generates code capable of using a newer PLT and GOT layout that has
the security advantage of no executable section ever needing to be
writable and no writable section ever being executable. PowerPC
ld
will generate this layout, including stubs to access the
PLT, if all input files (including startup and static libraries) were
compiled with ‘-msecure-plt’. ‘--bss-plt’ forces the old
BSS PLT (and GOT layout) which can give slightly better performance.
ld
will use the new PLT and GOT layout if it is linking new
‘-fpic’ or ‘-fPIC’ code, but does not do so automatically
when linking non-PIC code. This option requests the new PLT and GOT
layout. A warning will be given if some object file requires the old
style BSS PLT.
The new secure PLT and GOT are placed differently relative to other
sections compared to older BSS PLT and GOT placement. The location of
.plt
must change because the new secure PLT is an initialized
section while the old PLT is uninitialized. The reason for the
.got
change is more subtle: The new placement allows
.got
to be read-only in applications linked with
‘-z relro -z now’. However, this placement means that
.sdata
cannot always be used in shared libraries, because the
PowerPC ABI accesses .sdata
in shared libraries from the GOT
pointer. ‘--sdata-got’ forces the old GOT placement. PowerPC
GCC doesn’t use .sdata
in shared libraries, so this option is
really only useful for other compilers that may do so.
This option causes ld
to label linker stubs with a local
symbol that encodes the stub type and destination.
PowerPC ld
normally performs some optimization of code
sequences used to access Thread-Local Storage. Use this option to
disable the optimization.
Next: S/390 ELF, Previous: PowerPC ELF32, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and PowerPC64 64-bit ELF SupportLong branch stubs, PLT call stubs and TOC adjusting stubs are placed
by ld
in stub sections located between groups of input sections.
‘--stub-group-size’ specifies the maximum size of a group of input
sections handled by one stub section. Since branch offsets are signed,
a stub section may serve two groups of input sections, one group before
the stub section, and one group after it. However, when using
conditional branches that require stubs, it may be better (for branch
prediction) that stub sections only serve one group of input sections.
A negative value for ‘N’ chooses this scheme, ensuring that
branches to stubs always use a negative offset. Two special values of
‘N’ are recognized, ‘1’ and ‘-1’. These both instruct
ld
to automatically size input section groups for the branch types
detected, with the same behaviour regarding stub placement as other
positive or negative values of ‘N’ respectively.
Note that ‘--stub-group-size’ does not split input sections. A single input section larger than the group size specified will of course create a larger group (of one section). If input sections are too large, it may not be possible for a branch to reach its stub.
This option causes ld
to label linker stubs with a local
symbol that encodes the stub type and destination.
These two options control how ld
interprets version patterns
in a version script. Older PowerPC64 compilers emitted both a
function descriptor symbol with the same name as the function, and a
code entry symbol with the name prefixed by a dot (‘.’). To
properly version a function ‘foo’, the version script thus needs
to control both ‘foo’ and ‘.foo’. The option
‘--dotsyms’, on by default, automatically adds the required
dot-prefixed patterns. Use ‘--no-dotsyms’ to disable this
feature.
These two options control whether PowerPC64 ld
automatically
provides out-of-line register save and restore functions used by
‘-Os’ code. The default is to provide any such referenced
function for a normal final link, and to not do so for a relocatable
link.
PowerPC64 ld
normally performs some optimization of code
sequences used to access Thread-Local Storage. Use this option to
disable the optimization.
These options control how PowerPC64 ld
uses a special
stub to call __tls_get_addr. PowerPC64 glibc 2.22 and later support
an optimization that allows the second and subsequent calls to
__tls_get_addr
for a given symbol to be resolved by the special
stub without calling in to glibc. By default the linker enables
generation of the stub when glibc advertises the availability of
__tls_get_addr_opt.
Using --tls-get-addr-optimize with an older glibc won’t do
much besides slow down your applications, but may be useful if linking
an application against an older glibc with the expectation that it
will normally be used on systems having a newer glibc.
--tls-get-addr-regsave forces generation of a stub that saves
and restores volatile registers around the call into glibc. Normally,
this is done when the linker detects a call to __tls_get_addr_desc.
Such calls then go via the register saving stub to __tls_get_addr_opt.
--no-tls-get-addr-regsave disables generation of the
register saves.
PowerPC64 ld
normally removes .opd
section entries
corresponding to deleted link-once functions, or functions removed by
the action of ‘--gc-sections’ or linker script /DISCARD/
.
Use this option to disable .opd
optimization.
Some PowerPC64 compilers have an option to generate compressed
.opd
entries spaced 16 bytes apart, overlapping the third word,
the static chain pointer (unused in C) with the first word of the next
entry. This option expands such entries to the full 24 bytes.
PowerPC64 ld
normally removes unused .toc
section
entries. Such entries are detected by examining relocations that
reference the TOC in code sections. A reloc in a deleted code section
marks a TOC word as unneeded, while a reloc in a kept code section
marks a TOC word as needed. Since the TOC may reference itself, TOC
relocs are also examined. TOC words marked as both needed and
unneeded will of course be kept. TOC words without any referencing
reloc are assumed to be part of a multi-word entry, and are kept or
discarded as per the nearest marked preceding word. This works
reliably for compiler generated code, but may be incorrect if assembly
code is used to insert TOC entries. Use this option to disable the
optimization.
PowerPC64 ld
normally replaces inline PLT call sequences
marked with R_PPC64_PLTSEQ
, R_PPC64_PLTCALL
,
R_PPC64_PLT16_HA
and R_PPC64_PLT16_LO_DS
relocations by
a number of nop
s and a direct call when the function is defined
locally and can’t be overridden by some other definition. This option
disables that optimization.
If given any toc option besides -mcmodel=medium
or
-mcmodel=large
, PowerPC64 GCC generates code for a TOC model
where TOC
entries are accessed with a 16-bit offset from r2. This limits the
total TOC size to 64K. PowerPC64 ld
extends this limit by
grouping code sections such that each group uses less than 64K for its
TOC entries, then inserts r2 adjusting stubs between inter-group
calls. ld
does not split apart input sections, so cannot
help if a single input file has a .toc
section that exceeds
64K, most likely from linking multiple files with ld -r
.
Use this option to turn off this feature.
By default, ld
sorts TOC sections so that those whose file
happens to have a section called .init
or .fini
are
placed first, followed by TOC sections referenced by code generated
with PowerPC64 gcc’s -mcmodel=small
, and lastly TOC sections
referenced only by code generated with PowerPC64 gcc’s
-mcmodel=medium
or -mcmodel=large
options. Doing this
results in better TOC grouping for multi-TOC. Use this option to turn
off this feature.
Use these options to control whether individual PLT call stubs are
aligned to a 32-byte boundary, or to the specified power of two
boundary when using --plt-align=
. A negative value may be
specified to pad PLT call stubs so that they do not cross the
specified power of two boundary (or the minimum number of boundaries
if a PLT stub is so large that it must cross a boundary). By default
PLT call stubs are aligned to 32-byte boundaries.
Use these options to control whether PLT call stubs load the static
chain pointer (r11). ld
defaults to not loading the static
chain since there is never any need to do so on a PLT call.
With power7’s weakly ordered memory model, it is possible when using
lazy binding for ld.so to update a plt entry in one thread and have
another thread see the individual plt entry words update in the wrong
order, despite ld.so carefully writing in the correct order and using
memory write barriers. To avoid this we need some sort of read
barrier in the call stub, or use LD_BIND_NOW=1. By default, ld
looks for calls to commonly used functions that create threads, and if
seen, adds the necessary barriers. Use these options to change the
default behaviour.
ELFv2 functions with localentry:0 are those with a single entry point, ie. global entry == local entry, and that have no requirement on r2 (the TOC/GOT pointer) or r12, and guarantee r2 is unchanged on return. Such an external function can be called via the PLT without saving r2 or restoring it on return, avoiding a common load-hit-store for small functions. The optimization is attractive, with up to 40% reduction in execution time for a small function, but can result in symbol interposition failures. Also, minor changes in a shared library, including system libraries, can cause a function that was localentry:0 to become localentry:8. This will result in a dynamic loader complaint and failure to run. The option is experimental, use with care. --no-plt-localentry is the default.
When PowerPC64 ld
links input object files containing
relocations used on power10 prefixed instructions it normally creates
linkage stubs (PLT call and long branch) using power10 instructions
for @notoc
PLT calls where r2
is not known. The
power10 notoc stubs are smaller and faster, so are preferred for
power10. --power10-stubs and --no-power10-stubs
allow you to override the linker’s selection of stub instructions.
--power10-stubs=auto allows the user to select the default
auto mode.
Next: SPU ELF, Previous: PowerPC64 ELF64, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and S/390 ELF SupportThis option marks the result file with a PT_S390_PGSTE
segment. The Linux kernel is supposed to allocate 4k page tables for
binaries marked that way.
Next: TI COFF, Previous: S/390 ELF, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and SPU ELF SupportThis option marks an executable as a PIC plugin module.
Normally, ld
recognizes calls to functions within overlay
regions, and redirects such calls to an overlay manager via a stub.
ld
also provides a built-in overlay manager. This option
turns off all this special overlay handling.
This option causes ld
to label overlay stubs with a local
symbol that encodes the stub type and destination.
This option causes ld
to add overlay call stubs on all
function calls out of overlay regions. Normally stubs are not added
on calls to non-overlay regions.
ld
usually checks that a final executable for SPU fits in
the address range 0 to 256k. This option may be used to change the
range. Disable the check entirely with --local-store=0:0.
SPU local store space is limited. Over-allocation of stack space
unnecessarily limits space available for code and data, while
under-allocation results in runtime failures. If given this option,
ld
will provide an estimate of maximum stack usage.
ld
does this by examining symbols in code sections to
determine the extents of functions, and looking at function prologues
for stack adjusting instructions. A call-graph is created by looking
for relocations on branch instructions. The graph is then searched
for the maximum stack usage path. Note that this analysis does not
find calls made via function pointers, and does not handle recursion
and other cycles in the call graph. Stack usage may be
under-estimated if your code makes such calls. Also, stack usage for
dynamic allocation, e.g. alloca, will not be detected. If a link map
is requested, detailed information about each function’s stack usage
and calls will be given.
This option, if given along with --stack-analysis will result
in ld
emitting stack sizing symbols for each function.
These take the form __stack_<function_name>
for global
functions, and __stack_<number>_<function_name>
for static
functions. <number>
is the section id in hex. The value of
such symbols is the stack requirement for the corresponding function.
The symbol size will be zero, type STT_NOTYPE
, binding
STB_LOCAL
, and section SHN_ABS
.
Next: WIN32, Previous: SPU ELF, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
’s Support for Various TI COFF VersionsThe ‘--format’ switch allows selection of one of the various
TI COFF versions. The latest of this writing is 2; versions 0 and 1 are
also supported. The TI COFF versions also vary in header byte-order
format; ld
will read any version or byte order, but the output
header format depends on the default specified by the specific target.
Next: Xtensa, Previous: TI COFF, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and WIN32 (cygwin/mingw)This section describes some of the win32 specific ld
issues.
See Command-line Options for detailed description of the
command-line options mentioned here.
The standard Windows linker creates and uses so-called import
libraries, which contains information for linking to dll’s. They are
regular static archives and are handled as any other static
archive. The cygwin and mingw ports of ld
have specific
support for creating such libraries provided with the
‘--out-implib’ command-line option.
The cygwin/mingw ld
has several ways to export symbols for dll’s.
By default ld
exports symbols with the auto-export functionality,
which is controlled by the following command-line options:
When auto-export is in operation, ld
will export all the non-local
(global and common) symbols it finds in a DLL, with the exception of a few
symbols known to belong to the system’s runtime and libraries. As it will
often not be desirable to export all of a DLL’s symbols, which may include
private functions that are not part of any public interface, the command-line
options listed above may be used to filter symbols out from the list for
exporting. The ‘--output-def’ option can be used in order to see the
final list of exported symbols with all exclusions taken into effect.
If ‘--export-all-symbols’ is not given explicitly on the command line, then the default auto-export behavior will be disabled if either of the following are true:
Another way of exporting symbols is using a DEF file. A DEF file is an ASCII file containing definitions of symbols which should be exported when a dll is created. Usually it is named ‘<dll name>.def’ and is added as any other object file to the linker’s command line. The file’s name must end in ‘.def’ or ‘.DEF’.
gcc -o <output> <objectfiles> <dll name>.def
Using a DEF file turns off the normal auto-export behavior, unless the ‘--export-all-symbols’ option is also used.
Here is an example of a DEF file for a shared library called ‘xyz.dll’:
LIBRARY "xyz.dll" BASE=0x20000000 EXPORTS foo bar _bar = bar another_foo = abc.dll.afoo var1 DATA doo = foo == foo2 eoo DATA == var1
This example defines a DLL with a non-default base address and seven
symbols in the export table. The third exported symbol _bar
is an
alias for the second. The fourth symbol, another_foo
is resolved
by "forwarding" to another module and treating it as an alias for
afoo
exported from the DLL ‘abc.dll’. The final symbol
var1
is declared to be a data object. The ‘doo’ symbol in
export library is an alias of ‘foo’, which gets the string name
in export table ‘foo2’. The ‘eoo’ symbol is an data export
symbol, which gets in export table the name ‘var1’.
The optional LIBRARY <name>
command indicates the internal
name of the output DLL. If ‘<name>’ does not include a suffix,
the default library suffix, ‘.DLL’ is appended.
When the .DEF file is used to build an application, rather than a
library, the NAME <name>
command should be used instead of
LIBRARY
. If ‘<name>’ does not include a suffix, the default
executable suffix, ‘.EXE’ is appended.
With either LIBRARY <name>
or NAME <name>
the optional
specification BASE = <number>
may be used to specify a
non-default base address for the image.
If neither LIBRARY <name>
nor NAME <name>
is specified,
or they specify an empty string, the internal name is the same as the
filename specified on the command line.
The complete specification of an export symbol is:
EXPORTS ( ( ( <name1> [ = <name2> ] ) | ( <name1> = <module-name> . <external-name>)) [ @ <integer> ] [NONAME] [DATA] [CONSTANT] [PRIVATE] [== <name3>] ) *
Declares ‘<name1>’ as an exported symbol from the DLL, or declares ‘<name1>’ as an exported alias for ‘<name2>’; or declares ‘<name1>’ as a "forward" alias for the symbol ‘<external-name>’ in the DLL ‘<module-name>’. Optionally, the symbol may be exported by the specified ordinal ‘<integer>’ alias. The optional ‘<name3>’ is the to be used string in import/export table for the symbol.
The optional keywords that follow the declaration indicate:
NONAME
: Do not put the symbol name in the DLL’s export table. It
will still be exported by its ordinal alias (either the value specified
by the .def specification or, otherwise, the value assigned by the
linker). The symbol name, however, does remain visible in the import
library (if any), unless PRIVATE
is also specified.
DATA
: The symbol is a variable or object, rather than a function.
The import lib will export only an indirect reference to foo
as
the symbol _imp__foo
(ie, foo
must be resolved as
*_imp__foo
).
CONSTANT
: Like DATA
, but put the undecorated foo
as
well as _imp__foo
into the import library. Both refer to the
read-only import address table’s pointer to the variable, not to the
variable itself. This can be dangerous. If the user code fails to add
the dllimport
attribute and also fails to explicitly add the
extra indirection that the use of the attribute enforces, the
application will behave unexpectedly.
PRIVATE
: Put the symbol in the DLL’s export table, but do not put
it into the static import library used to resolve imports at link time. The
symbol can still be imported using the LoadLibrary/GetProcAddress
API at runtime or by using the GNU ld extension of linking directly to
the DLL without an import library.
See ld/deffilep.y in the binutils sources for the full specification of other DEF file statements
While linking a shared dll, ld
is able to create a DEF file
with the ‘--output-def <file>’ command-line option.
Another way of marking symbols for export is to modify the source code itself, so that when building the DLL each symbol to be exported is declared as:
__declspec(dllexport) int a_variable __declspec(dllexport) void a_function(int with_args)
All such symbols will be exported from the DLL. If, however, any of the object files in the DLL contain symbols decorated in this way, then the normal auto-export behavior is disabled, unless the ‘--export-all-symbols’ option is also used.
Note that object files that wish to access these symbols must not decorate them with dllexport. Instead, they should use dllimport, instead:
__declspec(dllimport) int a_variable __declspec(dllimport) void a_function(int with_args)
This complicates the structure of library header files, because when included by the library itself the header must declare the variables and functions as dllexport, but when included by client code the header must declare them as dllimport. There are a number of idioms that are typically used to do this; often client code can omit the __declspec() declaration completely. See ‘--enable-auto-import’ and ‘automatic data imports’ for more information.
The standard Windows dll format supports data imports from dlls only by adding special decorations (dllimport/dllexport), which let the compiler produce specific assembler instructions to deal with this issue. This increases the effort necessary to port existing Un*x code to these platforms, especially for large c++ libraries and applications. The auto-import feature, which was initially provided by Paul Sokolovsky, allows one to omit the decorations to achieve a behavior that conforms to that on POSIX/Un*x platforms. This feature is enabled with the ‘--enable-auto-import’ command-line option, although it is enabled by default on cygwin/mingw. The ‘--enable-auto-import’ option itself now serves mainly to suppress any warnings that are ordinarily emitted when linked objects trigger the feature’s use.
auto-import of variables does not always work flawlessly without additional assistance. Sometimes, you will see this message
"variable ’<var>’ can’t be auto-imported. Please read the
documentation for ld’s --enable-auto-import
for details."
The ‘--enable-auto-import’ documentation explains why this error occurs, and several methods that can be used to overcome this difficulty. One of these methods is the runtime pseudo-relocs feature, described below.
For complex variables imported from DLLs (such as structs or classes), object files typically contain a base address for the variable and an offset (addend) within the variable–to specify a particular field or public member, for instance. Unfortunately, the runtime loader used in win32 environments is incapable of fixing these references at runtime without the additional information supplied by dllimport/dllexport decorations. The standard auto-import feature described above is unable to resolve these references.
The ‘--enable-runtime-pseudo-relocs’ switch allows these references to be resolved without error, while leaving the task of adjusting the references themselves (with their non-zero addends) to specialized code provided by the runtime environment. Recent versions of the cygwin and mingw environments and compilers provide this runtime support; older versions do not. However, the support is only necessary on the developer’s platform; the compiled result will run without error on an older system.
‘--enable-runtime-pseudo-relocs’ is not the default; it must be explicitly enabled as needed.
The cygwin/mingw ports of ld
support the direct linking,
including data symbols, to a dll without the usage of any import
libraries. This is much faster and uses much less memory than does the
traditional import library method, especially when linking large
libraries or applications. When ld
creates an import lib, each
function or variable exported from the dll is stored in its own bfd, even
though a single bfd could contain many exports. The overhead involved in
storing, loading, and processing so many bfd’s is quite large, and explains the
tremendous time, memory, and storage needed to link against particularly
large or complex libraries when using import libs.
Linking directly to a dll uses no extra command-line switches other than
‘-L’ and ‘-l’, because ld
already searches for a number
of names to match each library. All that is needed from the developer’s
perspective is an understanding of this search, in order to force ld to
select the dll instead of an import library.
For instance, when ld is called with the argument ‘-lxxx’ it will attempt to find, in the first directory of its search path,
libxxx.dll.a xxx.dll.a libxxx.a xxx.lib libxxx.lib cygxxx.dll (*) libxxx.dll xxx.dll
before moving on to the next directory in the search path.
(*) Actually, this is not ‘cygxxx.dll’ but in fact is ‘<prefix>xxx.dll’,
where ‘<prefix>’ is set by the ld
option
‘--dll-search-prefix=<prefix>’. In the case of cygwin, the standard gcc spec
file includes ‘--dll-search-prefix=cyg’, so in effect we actually search for
‘cygxxx.dll’.
Other win32-based unix environments, such as mingw or pw32, may use other ‘<prefix>’es, although at present only cygwin makes use of this feature. It was originally intended to help avoid name conflicts among dll’s built for the various win32/un*x environments, so that (for example) two versions of a zlib dll could coexist on the same machine.
The generic cygwin/mingw path layout uses a ‘bin’ directory for applications and dll’s and a ‘lib’ directory for the import libraries (using cygwin nomenclature):
bin/ cygxxx.dll lib/ libxxx.dll.a (in case of dll's) libxxx.a (in case of static archive)
Linking directly to a dll without using the import library can be done two ways:
1. Use the dll directly by adding the ‘bin’ path to the link line
gcc -Wl,-verbose -o a.exe -L../bin/ -lxxx
However, as the dll’s often have version numbers appended to their names (‘cygncurses-5.dll’) this will often fail, unless one specifies ‘-L../bin -lncurses-5’ to include the version. Import libs are generally not versioned, and do not have this difficulty.
2. Create a symbolic link from the dll to a file in the ‘lib’ directory according to the above mentioned search pattern. This should be used to avoid unwanted changes in the tools needed for making the app/dll.
ln -s bin/cygxxx.dll lib/[cyg|lib|]xxx.dll[.a]
Then you can link without any make environment changes.
gcc -Wl,-verbose -o a.exe -L../lib/ -lxxx
This technique also avoids the version number problems, because the following is perfectly legal
bin/ cygxxx-5.dll lib/ libxxx.dll.a -> ../bin/cygxxx-5.dll
Linking directly to a dll without using an import lib will work even when auto-import features are exercised, and even when ‘--enable-runtime-pseudo-relocs’ is used.
Given the improvements in speed and memory usage, one might justifiably wonder why import libraries are used at all. There are three reasons:
1. Until recently, the link-directly-to-dll functionality did not work with auto-imported data.
2. Sometimes it is necessary to include pure static objects within the import library (which otherwise contains only bfd’s for indirection symbols that point to the exports of a dll). Again, the import lib for the cygwin kernel makes use of this ability, and it is not possible to do this without an import lib.
3. Symbol aliases can only be resolved using an import lib. This is critical when linking against OS-supplied dll’s (eg, the win32 API) in which symbols are usually exported as undecorated aliases of their stdcall-decorated assembly names.
So, import libs are not going away. But the ability to replace true import libs with a simple symbolic link to (or a copy of) a dll, in many cases, is a useful addition to the suite of tools binutils makes available to the win32 developer. Given the massive improvements in memory requirements during linking, storage requirements, and linking speed, we expect that many developers will soon begin to use this feature whenever possible.
Sometimes, it is useful to export symbols with additional names. A symbol ‘foo’ will be exported as ‘foo’, but it can also be exported as ‘_foo’ by using special directives in the DEF file when creating the dll. This will affect also the optional created import library. Consider the following DEF file:
LIBRARY "xyz.dll" BASE=0x61000000 EXPORTS foo _foo = foo
The line ‘_foo = foo’ maps the symbol ‘foo’ to ‘_foo’.
Another method for creating a symbol alias is to create it in the source code using the "weak" attribute:
void foo () { /* Do something. */; } void _foo () __attribute__ ((weak, alias ("foo")));
See the gcc manual for more information about attributes and weak symbols.
Sometimes it is useful to rename exports. For instance, the cygwin kernel does this regularly. A symbol ‘_foo’ can be exported as ‘foo’ but not as ‘_foo’ by using special directives in the DEF file. (This will also affect the import library, if it is created). In the following example:
LIBRARY "xyz.dll" BASE=0x61000000 EXPORTS _foo = foo
The line ‘_foo = foo’ maps the exported symbol ‘foo’ to ‘_foo’.
Note: using a DEF file disables the default auto-export behavior, unless the ‘--export-all-symbols’ command-line option is used. If, however, you are trying to rename symbols, then you should list all desired exports in the DEF file, including the symbols that are not being renamed, and do not use the ‘--export-all-symbols’ option. If you list only the renamed symbols in the DEF file, and use ‘--export-all-symbols’ to handle the other symbols, then the both the new names and the original names for the renamed symbols will be exported. In effect, you’d be aliasing those symbols, not renaming them, which is probably not what you wanted.
The Windows object format, PE, specifies a form of weak symbols called weak externals. When a weak symbol is linked and the symbol is not defined, the weak symbol becomes an alias for some other symbol. There are three variants of weak externals:
As a GNU extension, weak symbols that do not specify an alternate symbol are supported. If the symbol is undefined when linking, the symbol uses a default value.
As a GNU extension to the PE file format, it is possible to specify the
desired alignment for a common symbol. This information is conveyed from
the assembler or compiler to the linker by means of GNU-specific commands
carried in the object file’s ‘.drectve’ section, which are recognized
by ld
and respected when laying out the common symbols. Native
tools will be able to process object files employing this GNU extension,
but will fail to respect the alignment instructions, and may issue noisy
warnings about unknown linker directives.
Previous: WIN32, Up: Machine Dependent [Contents][Index]
ld
and Xtensa ProcessorsThe default ld
behavior for Xtensa processors is to interpret
SECTIONS
commands so that lists of explicitly named sections in a
specification with a wildcard file will be interleaved when necessary to
keep literal pools within the range of PC-relative load offsets. For
example, with the command:
SECTIONS { .text : { *(.literal .text) } }
ld
may interleave some of the .literal
and .text
sections from different object files to ensure that the
literal pools are within the range of PC-relative load offsets. A valid
interleaving might place the .literal
sections from an initial
group of files followed by the .text
sections of that group of
files. Then, the .literal
sections from the rest of the files
and the .text
sections from the rest of the files would follow.
Relaxation is enabled by default for the Xtensa version of ld
and
provides two important link-time optimizations. The first optimization
is to combine identical literal values to reduce code size. A redundant
literal will be removed and all the L32R
instructions that use it
will be changed to reference an identical literal, as long as the
location of the replacement literal is within the offset range of all
the L32R
instructions. The second optimization is to remove
unnecessary overhead from assembler-generated “longcall” sequences of
L32R
/CALLXn
when the target functions are within
range of direct CALLn
instructions.
For each of these cases where an indirect call sequence can be optimized
to a direct call, the linker will change the CALLXn
instruction to a CALLn
instruction, remove the L32R
instruction, and remove the literal referenced by the L32R
instruction if it is not used for anything else. Removing the
L32R
instruction always reduces code size but can potentially
hurt performance by changing the alignment of subsequent branch targets.
By default, the linker will always preserve alignments, either by
switching some instructions between 24-bit encodings and the equivalent
density instructions or by inserting a no-op in place of the L32R
instruction that was removed. If code size is more important than
performance, the --size-opt option can be used to prevent the
linker from widening density instructions or inserting no-ops, except in
a few cases where no-ops are required for correctness.
The following Xtensa-specific command-line options can be used to control the linker:
When optimizing indirect calls to direct calls, optimize for code size more than performance. With this option, the linker will not insert no-ops or widen density instructions to preserve branch target alignment. There may still be some cases where no-ops are required to preserve the correctness of the code.
Choose ABI for the output object and for the generated PLT code.
PLT code inserted by the linker must match ABI of the output object
because windowed and call0 ABI use incompatible function call
conventions.
Default ABI is chosen by the ABI tag in the .xtensa.info
section
of the first input object.
A warning is issued if ABI tags of input objects do not match each other
or the chosen output object ABI.
Next: Reporting Bugs, Previous: Machine Dependent, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
The linker accesses object and archive files using the BFD libraries.
These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines to operate on
object files whatever the object file format. A different object file
format can be supported simply by creating a new BFD back end and adding
it to the library. To conserve runtime memory, however, the linker and
associated tools are usually configured to support only a subset of the
object file formats available. You can use objdump -i
(see objdump in The GNU Binary Utilities) to
list all the formats available for your configuration.
As with most implementations, BFD is a compromise between several conflicting requirements. The major factor influencing BFD design was efficiency: any time used converting between formats is time which would not have been spent had BFD not been involved. This is partly offset by abstraction payback; since BFD simplifies applications and back ends, more time and care may be spent optimizing algorithms for a greater speed.
One minor artifact of the BFD solution which you should bear in mind is the potential for information loss. There are two places where useful information can be lost using the BFD mechanism: during conversion and during output. See BFD information loss.
• BFD outline | How it works: an outline of BFD |
When an object file is opened, BFD subroutines automatically determine the format of the input object file. They then build a descriptor in memory with pointers to routines that will be used to access elements of the object file’s data structures.
As different information from the object files is required, BFD reads from different sections of the file and processes them. For example, a very common operation for the linker is processing symbol tables. Each BFD back end provides a routine for converting between the object file’s representation of symbols and an internal canonical format. When the linker asks for the symbol table of an object file, it calls through a memory pointer to the routine from the relevant BFD back end which reads and converts the table into a canonical form. The linker then operates upon the canonical form. When the link is finished and the linker writes the output file’s symbol table, another BFD back end routine is called to take the newly created symbol table and convert it into the chosen output format.
• BFD information loss | Information Loss | |
• Canonical format | The BFD canonical object-file format |
Next: Canonical format, Up: BFD outline [Contents][Index]
Information can be lost during output. The output formats
supported by BFD do not provide identical facilities, and
information which can be described in one form has nowhere to go in
another format. One example of this is alignment information in
b.out
. There is nowhere in an a.out
format file to store
alignment information on the contained data, so when a file is linked
from b.out
and an a.out
image is produced, alignment
information will not propagate to the output file. (The linker will
still use the alignment information internally, so the link is performed
correctly).
Another example is COFF section names. COFF files may contain an
unlimited number of sections, each one with a textual section name. If
the target of the link is a format which does not have many sections (e.g.,
a.out
) or has sections without names (e.g., the Oasys format), the
link cannot be done simply. You can circumvent this problem by
describing the desired input-to-output section mapping with the linker command
language.
Information can be lost during canonicalization. The BFD internal canonical form of the external formats is not exhaustive; there are structures in input formats for which there is no direct representation internally. This means that the BFD back ends cannot maintain all possible data richness through the transformation between external to internal and back to external formats.
This limitation is only a problem when an application reads one
format and writes another. Each BFD back end is responsible for
maintaining as much data as possible, and the internal BFD
canonical form has structures which are opaque to the BFD core,
and exported only to the back ends. When a file is read in one format,
the canonical form is generated for BFD and the application. At the
same time, the back end saves away any information which may otherwise
be lost. If the data is then written back in the same format, the back
end routine will be able to use the canonical form provided by the
BFD core as well as the information it prepared earlier. Since
there is a great deal of commonality between back ends,
there is no information lost when
linking or copying big endian COFF to little endian COFF, or a.out
to
b.out
. When a mixture of formats is linked, the information is
only lost from the files whose format differs from the destination.
Previous: BFD information loss, Up: BFD outline [Contents][Index]
The greatest potential for loss of information occurs when there is the least overlap between the information provided by the source format, that stored by the canonical format, and that needed by the destination format. A brief description of the canonical form may help you understand which kinds of data you can count on preserving across conversions.
Information stored on a per-file basis includes target machine
architecture, particular implementation format type, a demand pageable
bit, and a write protected bit. Information like Unix magic numbers is
not stored here—only the magic numbers’ meaning, so a ZMAGIC
file would have both the demand pageable bit and the write protected
text bit set. The byte order of the target is stored on a per-file
basis, so that big- and little-endian object files may be used with one
another.
Each section in the input file contains the name of the section, the section’s original address in the object file, size and alignment information, various flags, and pointers into other BFD data structures.
Each symbol contains a pointer to the information for the object file
which originally defined it, its name, its value, and various flag
bits. When a BFD back end reads in a symbol table, it relocates all
symbols to make them relative to the base of the section where they were
defined. Doing this ensures that each symbol points to its containing
section. Each symbol also has a varying amount of hidden private data
for the BFD back end. Since the symbol points to the original file, the
private data format for that symbol is accessible. ld
can
operate on a collection of symbols of wildly different formats without
problems.
Normal global and simple local symbols are maintained on output, so an
output file (no matter its format) will retain symbols pointing to
functions and to global, static, and common variables. Some symbol
information is not worth retaining; in a.out
, type information is
stored in the symbol table as long symbol names. This information would
be useless to most COFF debuggers; the linker has command-line switches
to allow users to throw it away.
There is one word of type information within the symbol, so if the format supports symbol type information within symbols (for example, COFF, Oasys) and the type is simple enough to fit within one word (nearly everything but aggregates), the information will be preserved.
Each canonical BFD relocation record contains a pointer to the symbol to relocate to, the offset of the data to relocate, the section the data is in, and a pointer to a relocation type descriptor. Relocation is performed by passing messages through the relocation type descriptor and the symbol pointer. Therefore, relocations can be performed on output data using a relocation method that is only available in one of the input formats. For instance, Oasys provides a byte relocation format. A relocation record requesting this relocation type would point indirectly to a routine to perform this, so the relocation may be performed on a byte being written to a 68k COFF file, even though 68k COFF has no such relocation type.
Object formats can contain, for debugging purposes, some form of mapping between symbols, source line numbers, and addresses in the output file. These addresses have to be relocated along with the symbol information. Each symbol with an associated list of line number records points to the first record of the list. The head of a line number list consists of a pointer to the symbol, which allows finding out the address of the function whose line number is being described. The rest of the list is made up of pairs: offsets into the section and line numbers. Any format which can simply derive this information can pass it successfully between formats.
Your bug reports play an essential role in making ld
reliable.
Reporting a bug may help you by bringing a solution to your problem, or
it may not. But in any case the principal function of a bug report is
to help the entire community by making the next version of ld
work better. Bug reports are your contribution to the maintenance of
ld
.
In order for a bug report to serve its purpose, you must include the information that enables us to fix the bug.
• Bug Criteria | Have you found a bug? | |
• Bug Reporting | How to report bugs |
Next: Bug Reporting, Up: Reporting Bugs [Contents][Index]
If you are not sure whether you have found a bug, here are some guidelines:
ld
bug. Reliable linkers never crash.
ld
produces an error message for valid input, that is a bug.
ld
does not produce an error message for invalid input, that
may be a bug. In the general case, the linker can not verify that
object files are correct.
ld
are welcome in any case.
Previous: Bug Criteria, Up: Reporting Bugs [Contents][Index]
A number of companies and individuals offer support for GNU
products. If you obtained ld
from a support organization, we
recommend you contact that organization first.
You can find contact information for many support companies and individuals in the file etc/SERVICE in the GNU Emacs distribution.
Otherwise, send bug reports for ld
to
https://www.sourceware.org/bugzilla/.
The fundamental principle of reporting bugs usefully is this: report all the facts. If you are not sure whether to state a fact or leave it out, state it!
Often people omit facts because they think they know what causes the problem and assume that some details do not matter. Thus, you might assume that the name of a symbol you use in an example does not matter. Well, probably it does not, but one cannot be sure. Perhaps the bug is a stray memory reference which happens to fetch from the location where that name is stored in memory; perhaps, if the name were different, the contents of that location would fool the linker into doing the right thing despite the bug. Play it safe and give a specific, complete example. That is the easiest thing for you to do, and the most helpful.
Keep in mind that the purpose of a bug report is to enable us to fix the bug if it is new to us. Therefore, always write your bug reports on the assumption that the bug has not been reported previously.
Sometimes people give a few sketchy facts and ask, “Does this ring a bell?” This cannot help us fix a bug, so it is basically useless. We respond by asking for enough details to enable us to investigate. You might as well expedite matters by sending them to begin with.
To enable us to fix the bug, you should include all these things:
ld
. ld
announces it if you start it with
the ‘--version’ argument.
Without this, we will not know whether there is any point in looking for
the bug in the current version of ld
.
ld
source, including any
patches made to the BFD
library.
ld
—e.g.
“gcc-2.7
”.
If we were to try to guess the arguments, we would probably guess wrong and then we might not encounter the bug.
If the source files were assembled using gas
or compiled using
gcc
, then it may be OK to send the source files rather than the
object files. In this case, be sure to say exactly what version of
gas
or gcc
was used to produce the object files. Also say
how gas
or gcc
were configured.
Of course, if the bug is that ld
gets a fatal signal, then we
will certainly notice it. But if the bug is incorrect output, we might
not notice unless it is glaringly wrong. You might as well not give us
a chance to make a mistake.
Even if the problem you experience is a fatal signal, you should still
say so explicitly. Suppose something strange is going on, such as, your
copy of ld
is out of sync, or you have encountered a bug in the
C library on your system. (This has happened!) Your copy might crash
and ours would not. If you told us to expect a crash, then when ours
fails to crash, we would know that the bug was not happening for us. If
you had not told us to expect a crash, then we would not be able to draw
any conclusion from our observations.
ld
source, send us context
diffs, as generated by diff
with the ‘-u’, ‘-c’, or
‘-p’ option. Always send diffs from the old file to the new file.
If you even discuss something in the ld
source, refer to it by
context, not by line number.
The line numbers in our development sources will not match those in your sources. Your line numbers would convey no useful information to us.
Here are some things that are not necessary:
Often people who encounter a bug spend a lot of time investigating which changes to the input file will make the bug go away and which changes will not affect it.
This is often time consuming and not very useful, because the way we will find the bug is by running a single example under the debugger with breakpoints, not by pure deduction from a series of examples. We recommend that you save your time for something else.
Of course, if you can find a simpler example to report instead of the original one, that is a convenience for us. Errors in the output will be easier to spot, running under the debugger will take less time, and so on.
However, simplification is not vital; if you do not want to do this, report the bug anyway and send us the entire test case you used.
A patch for the bug does help us if it is a good one. But do not omit the necessary information, such as the test case, on the assumption that a patch is all we need. We might see problems with your patch and decide to fix the problem another way, or we might not understand it at all.
Sometimes with a program as complicated as ld
it is very hard to
construct an example that will make the program follow a certain path
through the code. If you do not send us the example, we will not be
able to construct one, so we will not be able to verify that the bug is
fixed.
And if we cannot understand what bug you are trying to fix, or why your patch should be an improvement, we will not install it. A test case will help us to understand.
Such guesses are usually wrong. Even we cannot guess right about such things without first using the debugger to find the facts.
Next: GNU Free Documentation License, Previous: Reporting Bugs, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
To aid users making the transition to GNU ld
from the MRI
linker, ld
can use MRI compatible linker scripts as an
alternative to the more general-purpose linker scripting language
described in Scripts. MRI compatible linker scripts have a much
simpler command set than the scripting language otherwise used with
ld
. GNU ld
supports the most commonly used MRI
linker commands; these commands are described here.
In general, MRI scripts aren’t of much use with the a.out
object
file format, since it only has three sections and MRI scripts lack some
features to make use of them.
You can specify a file containing an MRI-compatible script using the ‘-c’ command-line option.
Each command in an MRI-compatible script occupies its own line; each
command line starts with the keyword that identifies the command (though
blank lines are also allowed for punctuation). If a line of an
MRI-compatible script begins with an unrecognized keyword, ld
issues a warning message, but continues processing the script.
Lines beginning with ‘*’ are comments.
You can write these commands using all upper-case letters, or all lower case; for example, ‘chip’ is the same as ‘CHIP’. The following list shows only the upper-case form of each command.
ABSOLUTE secname
ABSOLUTE secname, secname, … secname
Normally, ld
includes in the output file all sections from all
the input files. However, in an MRI-compatible script, you can use the
ABSOLUTE
command to restrict the sections that will be present in
your output program. If the ABSOLUTE
command is used at all in a
script, then only the sections named explicitly in ABSOLUTE
commands will appear in the linker output. You can still use other
input sections (whatever you select on the command line, or using
LOAD
) to resolve addresses in the output file.
ALIAS out-secname, in-secname
Use this command to place the data from input section in-secname in a section called out-secname in the linker output file.
in-secname may be an integer.
ALIGN secname = expression
Align the section called secname to expression. The expression should be a power of two.
BASE expression
Use the value of expression as the lowest address (other than absolute addresses) in the output file.
CHIP expression
CHIP expression, expression
This command does nothing; it is accepted only for compatibility.
END
This command does nothing whatever; it’s only accepted for compatibility.
FORMAT output-format
Similar to the OUTPUT_FORMAT
command in the more general linker
language, but restricted to S-records, if output-format is ‘S’
LIST anything…
Print (to the standard output file) a link map, as produced by the
ld
command-line option ‘-M’.
The keyword LIST
may be followed by anything on the
same line, with no change in its effect.
LOAD filename
LOAD filename, filename, … filename
Include one or more object file filename in the link; this has the
same effect as specifying filename directly on the ld
command line.
NAME output-name
output-name is the name for the program produced by ld
; the
MRI-compatible command NAME
is equivalent to the command-line
option ‘-o’ or the general script language command OUTPUT
.
ORDER secname, secname, … secname
ORDER secname secname secname
Normally, ld
orders the sections in its output file in the
order in which they first appear in the input files. In an MRI-compatible
script, you can override this ordering with the ORDER
command. The
sections you list with ORDER
will appear first in your output
file, in the order specified.
PUBLIC name=expression
PUBLIC name,expression
PUBLIC name expression
Supply a value (expression) for external symbol name used in the linker input files.
SECT secname, expression
SECT secname=expression
SECT secname expression
You can use any of these three forms of the SECT
command to
specify the start address (expression) for section secname.
If you have more than one SECT
statement for the same
secname, only the first sets the start address.
Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. http://fsf.org/ Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
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If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.
Previous: GNU Free Documentation License, Up: Top [Contents][Index]
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